THE  RAILWAY  BUILDER. 


THE  RAILWAY  BUILDER 


A    HANDBOOK 
FOR    ESTIMATING 
THE    COST    OF 
AMERICAN  RAILWAY 
CONSTRUCTION    AND 
EQUIPMENT 


BY 

WILLIAM   JASPER% 

M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E. 

AUTHOR  OF  "  THE  STORY  OF  AMERICAN  COALS, 


FIFTH  EDITION,    RE- 
VISED  &   ENLARGED 


PHILADELPHIA 
J.   B.   LIPPINCOTT    COMPANY 

LONDON  :    6  HENRIETTA  STREET,  COVENT  GARDEN 

i897 


c\5 

^  , 


COPYRIGHT,  1878  AND  1897, 

BY 

WILLIAM  JASPER  NICOLLS. 


DEDICATED   TO 

CARL    WALDEMAR    BUCHHOLZ, 

CHIEF    ENGINEER 

ERIE    RAILROAD 

BY 

THE   AUTHOR. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FIFTH  EDITION, 


IN  the  present  edition  the  entire  work  has 
been  carefully  revised  and  brought  up  to  date. 
It  has  also  received  many  additions,  the  page 
enlarged,  and  a  new  form  of  binding  adopted, 
so  as  to  render  the  volume  suitable  both  for 
the  library  and  pocket. 

The  Author  has  added  fifteen  years  to  his 
professional  life,  and  has  learned  many  useful 
facts  which,  as  far  as  practicable,  are  set  forth 
in  this  edition  for  the  benefit  of  the  unprofes- 
sional reader ;  for  time  has  shown  that  to  such 
the  book  has  been  useful. 

Capitalists  who  put  their  money  in  Ameri- 
can railways,  contractors  who  build  them,  and 
the  host  of  practical  men  operating  them,  will 


10  PREFACE. 

find  in  the  following  pages  plain  and  simple 
directions  for  estimating  on  the  first  cost  or  for 
renewals,  while  the  young  engineer  will  find 
much  that  heretofore  has  been  covered  with 
many  formulas  and  tedious  analyses. 

W.  J.  N. 
PHILADELPHIA,  1897. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION, 


IN  offering  this  little  volume  to  the  railroad 
world  the  Author  realizes  the  fact  that  other 
books  have  been  published  covering  the  same 
ground  in  detail ;  and  that  numerous  works  by 
Engineers  of  known  ability  and  reputation  are 
also  in  existence,  which  contain  an  immense 
fund  of  general  information  and  most  of  the 
tables  necessary  for  calculation.  But  they  are 
either  in  a  condensed  form,  or  clothed  in  for- 
mulas and  symbols  totally  unknown  to  the 
average  railroad  man.  During  a  professional 
career  of  nine  years  the  Author  has  had  a 
varied  experience,  embracing  nearly  every 
kind  of  railway  construction,  locating,  build- 
ing, and  equipping  them,  and  during  that 
period  has  also  been  closely  identified  with 

11 


12  PREFACE. 

works  manufacturing  railway  plant.  From 
notes  collected  during  this  time,  often  from  the 
expressed  opinions  of  prominent  railway  men, 
from  information  obtained  in  travelling  over 
nearly  every  railway  in  the  United  States  and 
the  Canadas,  and  from  the  works  before  men- 
tioned, this  book  has  been  prepared,  not  for 
the  critical  savant,  but  for  the  daily  use  of 
practical  railroad  men,  those  not  conversant 
with  Engineering  formulas  or  manufacturers' 
processes,  to  enable  them  to  familiarize  them- 
selves with  the  subject  and  to  assist  them  in 
estimating  the  probable  cost  of  constructing 
and  equipping  an  American  railway.  The 
writer  acknowledges  himself  indebted  to  Trau- 
twine,  Haswell,  Jervis,  Forney,  Barry,  Gilles- 
pie,  Haupt,  Knight,  and  Lorenz. 

WM.  J.  NICOLLS. 

NEW  YORK,  May  4, 1878. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER    I. 

PAGE 

FIELD  OPERATIONS 15 

CHAPTER    II. 
PRELIMINARY  SURVEYS 46 

CHAPTER    III. 

COST  OF  EARTHWORK 78 

CHAPTER    IV. 
PERMANENT  WAY 102 

CHAPTER    V. 
FROGS  AND  SWITCHES 163 

CHAPTER    VI. 

EQUIPMENT 217 

13 


1 4  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER    VII. 

PAGE 

DEPOTS  AND  STRUCTURES 255 

CHAPTEE    VIII. 
CONCLUSION .  269 


THE  RAILWAY  BUILDEK. 


CHAPTEE  I. 

FIELD  OPERATIONS. 

BEFORE  any  idea  can  be  formed  regard- 
ing the  probable  cost  of  a  projected  line 
of  railway,  it  is  necessary  to  have  as  com- 
plete a  map  as  possible  of  the  proposed 
line,  showing  the  nature  of  the  country 
through  which  the  road  is  to  run,  together 
with  all  available  information  collected 
and  carefully  noted  on  the  map  or  field- 
book.  For  this  purpose  a  party  or  CORPS 
OF  ENGINEERS  must  be  equipped  and  sent 
into  "the  field,"  and  consists  usually  of 
from  eight  to  a  dozen  men  to  each  corps — 
graded  and  termed  as  follows : — 

Chief  of  Corps,  Transitman,  Leveller, 
Level  Kodman,  Front  Chainman,  Back 

15 


1 


Level  rod. 


16 


FIELD   OPERATIONS.  17 

Chainman,  Front  Rodman,  Back  Eodman 
and  Axman,  to  which  may  be  added  a 
Topographer,  if  necessary.  The  Chief  of 
Corps  is  in  charge  of  the  party,  and  his 
business  is  to  determine  what  route  is  to 
be  taken  by  the  line  of  survey.  The 
Transitman  runs  the  transit  instrument, 
and  keeps  the  "  transit  field-book."  The 
Leveller  runs  the  level  instrument  and 
keeps  the  "level  field-book."  Level  Rod- 
man handles  the  level  rod,  while  the  two 
Chainmen  and  Transit  Rodman  handle 
respectively  the  instruments  which  their 
names  indicate.  The  Axman's  duties 
consist  in  clearing  away  the  brush  or  trees 
in  advance  of  the  corps,  and  also  in  mak- 
ing and  driving  stakes  at  the  points 
marked  by  the  Chainman.  THE  TRANSIT 
is  an  instrument  used  for  establishing 
points  in  the  line  of  survey  and  for  mea- 
suring angles.  It  consists,  essentially,  of 
a  circular  plate  of  metal,  supported  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  be  horizontal  and 
divided  on  its  outer  circumference  into 


Engineer's  transit. 


18 


FIELD   OPERATIONS.  19 

degrees  and  parts  of  degrees.  Through 
the  centre  of  this  plate  passes  an  upright 
axis,  and  on  it  is  fixed  a  second  circular 
plate,  which  nearly  touches  the  first  plate, 
and  can  turn  freely  around  to  the  right 
and  to  the  left.  This  second  plate  carries 
a  telescope,  which  rests  upon  upright 
standards  firmly  fixed  to  the  plate,  and 
which  can  be  pointed  upwards  and  down- 
wards. By  the  combination  of  this  mo- 
tion, and  that  of  the  second  plate  around 
its  axis,  the  telescope  can  be  directed  to 
any  object.  The  second  plate  has  some 
marks  on  its  edge,  such  as  an  arrow-head, 
which  serves  as  a  pointer  or  index  for  the 
divided  circle,  like  the  hand  of  a  clock. 
When  the  telescope  is  directed  to  one  ob- 
ject, and  then  turned  to  the  right  or  to 
the  left  to  some  other  object,  this  index 
which  moves  with  it  and  passes  around 
the  divided  edge  of  the  other  plate,  points 
out  the  one  passed  over  by  this  change  of 
direction,  and  thus  measures  the  angles 
made  by  the  lines  imagined  to  pass  from 


Engineer's  chain. 


20 


FIELD   OPERATIONS.  21 

the  centre  of  the  instrument  to  the  two 
objects.  The  cost  of  one  of  these  instru- 
ments, suitable  for  railroad  work,  is  about 
$200.  THE  ENGINEER'S  LEVEL  consists 
simply  of  a  telescope  suspended  in  the  two 
arms  of  a  Y,  and  attached  to  it  is  a  small 
spirit  level.  By  means  of  screws  operated 
by  the  Leveller,  the  telescope  is  made  level, 
and  when  in  this  position  the  Leveller 
reads  from  his  rod  the  height  of  his  in- 
strument and  by  calculations — explained 
hereafter— determines  the  different  eleva- 
tions of  the  country  through  which  the 
line  of  survey  is  passing.  This  instrument 
will  cost  about  $150.  THE  CHAIN  is  used 
for  measuring  the  length  of  the  lines 
which  have  previously  been  determined 
by  the  Transitman.  It  is  composed  of 
100  links  of  wire,  steel  or  iron,  each  link 
being  one  foot  in  length ;  at  every  tenth 
link  is  fastened  a  brass  tag,  having  one, 
two,  three,  or  four  points,  corresponding 
to  the  number  of  tens  which  it  makes, 
counting  from  the  nearest  end  of  the 


22 


FIELD    OPEKATIONS. 


23 


chain.  The  middle  of  the  chain,  or  fif- 
tieth link  is  marked  by  a  round  piece  of 
brass.  A  good  steel  chain  100  feet  in 
length  is  worth  from  $10  to  $15.  An 
outfit  for  a  field  party,  sufficiently  com- 
plete for  all  practical  purposes,  would  be 
about  as  follows : — 


1.  Engineer's  Transit 

1.  "          Level 

1.  "          Level  Rod  . 

1.  Steel  Chain  . 

2.  Transit  Rods  @  $1.00 

1.  100  ft.  tape,  $5,  1-50  ft.  tape,  $3 

2.  Short-handled  Axes  @  $1.50 
1.  Pocket  Level         . 

1.  Slope        "  . 

Incidentals 


$417.00 

In  running  a  preliminary  line  for  a 
railroad,  straight  lines  only  are  located 
on  the  ground,  and  where  these  straight 
lines  intersect  or  join  each  other,  an  angle 
is  formed,  the  size  of  which  is  exactly  de- 
termined by  the  transit,  so  named,  because 
the  telescope  of  the  instrument  is  capable 


24 


FIELD   OPERATIONS.  25 

of  making  a  complete  revolution  on  its 
axis,  which  is  not  the  case  with  the  theo- 
dolite. In  running  a  line  with  the  transit, 
we  first  ascertain  at  what  point  the  survey 
is  to  commence,  then  we  designate  that 
point  as  station  0.  Now  set  the  transit 
exactly  over  this  point  by  means  of  the 
"  plumb  bob"  and  line  which  is  suspended 
from  it,  and  level  it  up.  Direct  the  tele- 
scope to  the  rod,  which  is  held  by  the 
"  front  rodman"  at  the  point  determined 
upon  by  the  "  Chief."  Sight  to  the  lowest 
visible  point  of  the  rod,  clamp  the  instru- 
ment, and  when  the  needle  of  the  compass 
comes  to  a  rest,  read  the  course  or  bear- 
ing of  the  line  which  connects  these  two 
points.  The  bearing  is  noted  by  reading 
between  what  letters  on  the  compass  the 
end  of  the  needle  comes,  and  to  what 
number,  naming  or  writing  down  FIKSTLY, 
the  letter  N.  or  S.  (North  or  South),  which 
is  at  the  0°  point  nearest  to  the  end  of 
the  needle  from  which  you  are  reading. 
SECONDLY,  the  number  of  degrees  to 


FIELD    OPERATIONS.  27 

which  it  points ;  and  THIRDLY,  the  letters 
E.  or  W.  (East  or  West),  of  the  90°  point 
which  is  nearest  to  the  same  end  of  the 
needle. 

After  this  course  is  carefully  noted  in 
the  field-book  (suppose  it  to  be  N.  45° 
E.),  direct  the  chainmen  to  measure  the 
distance  from  the  transit  point  to  the 
point  at  which  the  Front  Rodman  is 
stationed,  the  axman  driving  a  stake 
every  hundred  feet  (1  chain),  and  exactly 
in  the  line  given  him  by  the  Transit- 
man  with  his  instrument,  after  which  take 
a  second  sight  on  the  front  rod  to  see  that 
the  instrument  has  not  been  moved  in 
setting  the  stakes,  and  also  take  a  second 
reading  of  the  compass  to  avoid  any  error. 
The  Transitman,  after  directing  his  Back 
Eodman  to  occupy  the  position  at  station 
O,  will  then  move  up  the  instrument  to 
the  point  previously  established  by  the 
Front  Rodman,  where  he  will  set  up  the 
transit,  as  before.  The  distance  from  sta- 
tion O  to  this  point  has  now  been  ascer- 


28  THE    RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

tained  by  the  Chainmen,  and  a  stake  has 
been  driven  every  hundred  feet  by  the 
Axman,  and  numbered  1,  2,  3,  4,  etc. 
Suppose  the  distance  measured  to  be  800 
feet,  or  8  chains,  then  the  new  point  will 
be  at  station  8.  The  Transitman  notes 
this  distance  in  his  field-book,  and  after 
adjusting  his  instrument  so  that  the  VER- 
NIER plate  indicates  0°,  the  telescope  is 
reversed,  and  he  takes  a  "  back  sight"  on 
the  Back  Eodman  who  is  holding  his  rod 
on  the  head  of  a  tack  which  is  driven  in 
the  stake  marked  0.  After  clamping  the 
instrument  the  telescope  is  then  reversed 
and  directed  to  the  Front  Eodman,  who 
has  again  taken  up  a  position  in  ad- 
vance which  is  indicated  to  him  by  the 
Chief  as  the  point  to  which  the  line  is  to 
be  run.  At  this  point  there  will  be  an 
angle,  read  it  on  the  VERNIER  PLATE,  and 
also  note  the  new  reading  given  by  the 
needle,  taking  care  to  observe  whether 
the  change  of  direction  is  to  the  left  or 
to  the  right. 


FIELD   OPERATIONS.  29 

The  reading  of  the  VERNIER  (so  named 
from  its  inventor,  Pierre  Vernier,  who 
gave  a  description  of  it  in  a  tract  pub- 
lished at  Brussels  in  1631)  is  the  stum- 
bling-block in  the  use  of  the  transit  by 
many  practical  men.  It  is  very  simple. 
The  outside  circle  or  plate  is  divided 
into  degrees  and  half  degrees,  and  the 
inside  one  into  minutes.  Now,  the 
vernier  is  constructed  in  this  way:  A 
length  on  the  circumference  is  made 
on  the  inner  plate  equal  to  twenty-nine 
half  degrees  of  the  outside  plate.  This 
length  on  the  circumference  of  the  inner 
plate  is  then  divided  into  thirty  equal 
parts,  or  one  more  than  the  number  of 
half  degrees  occupying  the  same  space 
on  the  outer  plate.  It  is  obvious,  there- 
fore, that  each  division  on  the  inner 
plate  is  a  trifle  smaller  than  a  half 
degree  on  the  outer  plate,  and  this 
trifling  difference  is  the  space  measured 
by  the  vernier. 

To  READ  THE  VERNIER. — First,  note 


30  THE   RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

the  position  of  0°  on  the  inner  plate 
(usually  indicated  by  an  arrow-head), 
and  if  it  is  exactly  in  line  with  any 
division  of  degrees  or  half  degrees  on 
the  outer  plate,  that  will  be  the  angle 
measured  by  the  vernier.  But,  if  the 
0°  (or  arrow-line)  does  not  coincide 
exactly  with  any  line  on  the  outer  plate, 
then  observe  which  two  lines  on  the 
outer  and  inner  plates  coincide,  or  to- 
gether form  a  straight  line ;  this,  plus 
the  nearest  reading  indicated  on  the 
outside  plate  by  the  pointer  or  arrow- 
line,  will  be  the  correct  angle  in  degrees 
and  minutes. 

If  several  lines  seem  to  coincide,  take 
the  middle  one. 

A  brief  study  of  the  following  graphic 
figures  from  Gillespie's  "  Land  Survey- 
ing" will  make  the  above  description  of 
the  vernier  more  plain.  In  the  first, 
or  vernier  A,  the  reading  is  0°,  or  360° 
as  indicated  by  the  arrow-line.  In  the 
second,  or  vernier  B,  the  dotted  and 


31 


32  THE   RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

crossed  line  shows  what  divisions  co- 
incide, and  the  reading  is  20°  10',  the  0° 
(or  arrow-line)  of  the  inner  plate  being 
at  a  point  of  the  outer  circle  10'  (min- 
utes) beyond  20°  (degrees). 

Sometimes  the  graduations  of  a  ver- 
nier are  made  so  as  to  read  both  ways 
from  the  arrow-line,  or  zero.  In  that 
case  the  vernier  is  double.  Care  must 
be  taken  when  using  this  style  of  ver- 
nier to  note  which  way  the  angle  is 
measured;  that  is,  if  from  the  arrow- 
line,  or  zero,  towards  the  right  hand, 
then  the  reading  must  be  made  from 
the  right-hand  half  of  the  vernier. 
But  if  the  angle  is  measured  from  the 
arrow-line,  or  zero,  towards  the  left 
hand,  then  the  reading  must  be  made 
from  the  left-hand  half  of  the  vernier. 

To  return  to  our  survey,  suppose  the 
angle  we  have  just  turned  with  the  in- 
strument should  read  on  the  vernier  15° 
80'  to  the  right,  note  it  in  your  field-book 
and  direct  the  Chainmen  and  Axmen 


34 


THE   RAILWAY   BUILDER. 


to  proceed   as    before,   and  so  continue. 
The  field-book  will  then  look  as  follows : 


TRANSIT  BOOK. 


Sta- 
tion. 

Dis- 
tance 

Angle. 

Course. 

Remarks. 

10 

9 

"V" 

.80 



15°  30'  R. 

N.60°  30'  E. 

Plug        §           > 

1? 

7 

^~^f* 

c«e* 

6 

• 

^^i^- 

5 
4 

1 

HOUSE    .  " 
E.100    ^ 

^ 

3 
2 

O  o- 
Fig.  1. 

1 
00 

N.  45°  E. 

0.  On  plug  intersection  of 
centre  line  of  Madison  and 
Elm  Streets. 

And  so  proceed,  noting  carefully  the 
topography  of  the  country  through  which 
'the  line  is  running — in  the  field-book — 
and  marking  the  distances  to  any  promi- 
nent object  from  the  line,  such  as  a  large 
tree,  house,  barn,  stream  or  river.  This 
can  be  done  by  the  Transitman,  and  noted 


FIELD   OPERATIONS. 

in  his  field-book  as  above,  but  it  is  much 
preferable  to  have  an  extra  man  to  take 
the  topography  of  the  country  in  a  sepa- 
rate book,  thus  avoiding  confusion  of 
figures,  and  giving  the  Transitman  more 
time  to  devote  to  his  calculations  and  in- 
strument. In  running  a  "  line  of  survey" 
it  frequently  occurs  that  obstacles  to  mea- 
surement are  met  which  will  necessitate  a 
knowledge  of  triangulation.  The  simplest 
forms  are  noted  below  : — 


Fig.  2. 

1st.  When  a  tree  or  house  is  obstructing 
the  line.  Suppose  (in  figure  2)  A  B  is 
the  line  of  survey.  At  B  set  up  the 
transit,  and  taking  a  back  sight  on  A 


36  THE    RAILWAY    BUILDER. 

with  the  vernier  set  at  0°,  reverse  the 
telescope  and  turn  aside  from  the  line  at 
an  angle  of  60°,  and  measure  any  conve- 
nient distance  B  c.  Move  to  c  and  turn 
60°  in  the  contrary  direction,  and  measure 
to  D  the  same  distance  as  B  c.  Then 
move  to  D,  and  turn  60°  from  c  D,  pro- 
longed, and  D  E  will  be  the  "  line  of  sur- 
vey" continued. 

2d.    When  one  end  of  the  line  is  inac- 


Fig.  3. 

cessible.      Suppose   the    line   of  survey 
crosses  a  river  (as  in  figure  3),  D  A  is 


FIELD   OPERATIONS.  37 

the  line  of  survey,  and  B  is  inaccessible. 
At  the  point  A  set  off  A  c  perpendicular 
to  A  B  of  any  convenient  length.  At  c 
set  off  a  perpendicular  to  c  B,  and  con* 
tinue  it  to  a  point  D  in  the  line  of  A  and 

AC2 

B.      Measure  D  A.     Then  is  A  B  =  - — :* 

AD 

These  are  the  most  common  triangulations 
in  ordinary  practice,  but  other  cases  may 
occur  which  will  require  more  complicated 
figures.  A  study  of  the  subject  is  then 
advisable.  We  have  now  the  line  of  sur- 
vey, and  want  to  know  the  elevations  or 
levels  of  the  country  traversed  by  that 
line.  The  Leveller  and  his  Eodman  have 
been  following  the  transit  party,  as  fol- 
lows :  First,  setting  up  the  level  instru- 
ment at  some  convenient  distance  about 
midway  between  station  0  and  station  8, 
he  directs  the  Rodman  to  hold  his  rod  on 
some  fixed  point,  say  in  this  instance,  on 
top  of  the  curbstone,  at  the  corner  of 
Madison  and  Elm  Streets,  and  then  sight- 
ing through  the  telescope,  he  reads  how 
much  his  line  of  sight  is  above  the  bottom 


38 


THE   RAILWAY   BUILDER. 


of  the  rod,  thus  getting  the  height  of  the 
instrument  above  the  curb.  Then  assum- 
ing a  datum  line,  say  of  100.00,  he  adds 
this  reading,  which  is,  say  8.5  feet,  to  the 
datum,  and  calls  the  height  of  instrument 
108.50  feet.  He  now  proceeds  to  take  a 
reading  at  each  station,  0,  1,  2,  3,  4,  etc., 
up  to  station  8,  and  notes  down  each  read- 
ing in  his  book,  as  follows  : — 

LEVEL  BOOK. 


Station 

Rod. 

Instr't 

Elev. 

Remarks. 

B.  M. 

8.50 

108.50 

100.0 

On  curb  cor.  Madison 

0 

13.3 

95.2 

and  Elm  Streets. 

1 

6.2 

102.3 

2 

8.9 

99.6 

3 

9.7 

98.8 

4 

5.3 

103.2 

5 

4.2 

104.3 

6 

2.6 

105.9 

7 

7.1 

101.4 

+50 

15.00 

93.5 

Surface    water, 

Pan- 

8 

3.8 

104.7 

ther  Creek. 

and  subtracting  these  readings  from  the 
height  of  instrument  gives  the  elevation 


FIELD   OPERATIONS.  39 

of  each  point  or  station.  When  it  is  ne- 
cessary to  move  the  level,  the  Kodman 
drives  a  peg  into  the  ground,  and  gives 
a  rod  on  it  which  the  Leveller  sights  to, 
and  after  reading  it  very  carefully  moves 
the  instrument  ahead,  sets  it  up  again, 
takes  a  sight  at  the  rod  again,  and  adds 
this  reading  to  his  last  elevation  (i.  e.  the 
elevation  of  the  turning  peg) ;  this  gives 
him  a  new  height  of  instrument,  and  he 
proceeds  as  before. 

The  preliminary  line  finished,  the  next 
proceeding  is  to  locate  it.  Curves  must 
be  put  in  at  every  angle,  or  often  the 
whole  direction  of  the  line  changed. 
Without  stopping  to  explain  the  com- 
pound curve,  reversed  curve,  or  any  of 
the  intricacies  of  location,  it  is  thought 
advisable  simply  to  give  a  rule  for  in- 
serting a  curve  at  any  of  the  angles  of 
intersection.  Suppose  it  is  required  to 
find  the  point  A  or  D  at  which  to  com- 
mence a  curve  of  a  given  radius. 

KULE. — Subtract  half  the  angle  A  ,B  D 


40  THE   RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

from  90°,  the  remainder  will  be  the  angle 
B  c  A  or  B  c  D.  From  a  table  of  natural 
tangents,  take  the  tangent  of  B  c  A,  and 
multiply  it  by  the  given  radius,  the  pro- 
duct will  be  B  A  or  B  D.  Now  having 
calculated  the  apex  distance,  and  at  what 
point  the  curve  is  to  commence,  we  mea- 
sure back  from  the  point  of  intersection 


Fig.  4. 

that  distance,  and  establish  the  point  of 
curve  (P  c)  on  the  ground.  Then  to  locate 
it,  the  transit  is  set  up  at  the  point  of 


FIELD    OPERATIONS. 


41 


curve,  and  a  deflection  is  made  for  every 
100  feet,  equal  to  J  of  the  degree  of  curve. 
That  is,  suppose  it  is  required  to  locate  a 
6°  curve,  we  first  deflect  3°,  then  for  the 
next  station  of  100  feet  3°  more,  and  so 
proceed  to  the  end  of  the  curve,  then  in 


Fig.  5. 

order  to  pass  from  the  end  of  the  curve  D 
on  to  the  tangent  D  E,  place  the  instrument 
at  D,  and  sighting  back  to  c,  lay  off  the 
tangential  angle  c  D  B,  then  B  D  continued 
towards  E  will  be  the  required  tangent. 


42 


THE    RAILWAY    BUILDER. 


RAILWAY  CURVES. 


Degree. 

Radius. 

Vers.  sine. 

Ideg. 

5,730  feet. 

1-8    inch. 

2 

2,865     ' 

3-16 

3 

1,910     ' 

5-16 

4 

1,432     ' 

7-16 

5 

1,146     ' 

1-2 

6 

955     ' 

5-8 

7 

819     ' 

3-4 

8 

716     ' 

13-16 

9 

637     ' 

15-16 

10 

573     ' 

1     1-16 

11 

521     ' 

1     1-8 

12 

478     < 

1     1-4 

13 

441     ' 

1     3-8 

14 

410     ' 

1     7-16 

15 

383     < 

1     9-16 

16 

359     ' 

1  11-16 

17 

338     < 

1     3-4 

18 

319     ' 

1     7-8 

19 

302     ' 

2 

20 

287     ' 

2     1-16 

The  radius  of  a  1  degree  curve  equals  about 
ly1^  miles.  That  of  any  other  degree  is  found  by 
dividing  ly^  miles  or  5730  feet,  by  the  number  of 
degrees. 

EXAMPLE.— Radius  6°  curve  =  5730  -f-  6  =  955 
feet. 

Curvature  of  the  earth  is  e^ual  to  8  inches  per 
statute  mile. 


FIELD   OPERATIONS.  43 

In  the  foregoing  Table  of  Railway 
Curves  the  column  headed  "  vers.  sine" 
corresponds  to  the  middle  ordinates  of 
a  hundred-foot  chord. 

Thus  in  Fig.  5a  the  chord  A  B  rep- 
resents one  chain  (100  feet)  and  the 
middle  ordinate  is  the  distance,  c  D. 
With  this  distance  given  in  the  table  it 
is  easy  to  measure  it  on  the  ground, 
by  stretching  the  chain  from  A  to  B,  or 
by  setting  a  stake  with  the  transit  at 
D  and  50  feet  from  A.  The  distance 
measured  to  c  will  fix  the  proper  point 
on  the  curve  half  way  from  A  to  B. 

With  this  brief  introduction  regarding 
field  operations,  a  subject  has  been  con- 
sidered, which  in  itself  would  require  a 
volume  to  be  complete.  The  writer  pre- 
sents only  the  simplest  operations  of  any 
Engineer's  experience  in  the  field  and  "  on 
survey,"  sufficient,  however,  for  the  wants 
of  the  imscientific  man,  for  whom  this 
work  is  chiefly  intended. 


C     H   o!  B   O 


«     * 

v 

e 

Fig.  5a. 


44 


CHAPTER  II. 

PRELIMINARY  SURVEYS. 

THE  first  object  for  consideration  in 
locating  a  line  for  a  railway  is  to  ascer- 
tain, as  far  as  practicable,  the  probable 
amount  of  traffic  to  be  provided  for,  to- 
gether with  the  nature  of  the  same,  and 
the  direction  in  which  it  will  probably 
run ;  also  what  rate  of  speed  is  proposed 
for  the  rolling  stock :  if  high,  the  super- 
structure must  be  made  stronger  and 
heavier,  grades  must  be  made  easier,  and 
curves  lighter,  than  if  a  low  rate  of  speed 
is  contemplated.  With  this  information 
in  view,  and  carefully  considered,  the  En- 
gineer can  proceed  to  locate  the  line  with 
more  intelligence,  and  a  greater  degree 
of  success  than  usually  attends  the  aver- 
age "  locations"  of  the  present  day.  The 
first,  or  PRELIMINARY  SURVEY,  is  made 

45 


46  THE    EAILWAY    BUILDER. 

with  the  view  of  examining  the  country 
through  which  the  contemplated  railroad 
is  to  pass,  and  by  trial  lines,  and  notes 
collected  from  actual  survey,  to  arrive  at 
some  probable  route,  and  an  approximate 
estimate  of  its  cost.  The  points  from 
which  the  railroad  is  to  start  and  termi- 
nate, are  given,  and  the  Engineer's  duty 
consists  in  LOCATING  THE  LINE  which  is 
to  connect  them,  and  to  prepare  a  plan, 
profile,  and  estimate  of  the  cost  of  build- 
ing a  railroad  on  that  line. 

This  duty  involves  a  great  amount  of 
labor,  trouble,  and  annoyance.  A  deter- 
mined, resolute  Engineer  will  make  his 
location,  entirely  relying  on  his  own 
judgment  and  skill,  making  such  changes 
only  as  he  himself  thinks  right,  ignoring 
completely  scheming  directors  and  others 
having  for  their  only  object  the  filling  of 
their  pockets  at  the  expense  of  the  enter- 
prise. It  is  too  often  the  case  that  the 
locating  Engineer  is  besieged  by  the  men 
along  the  line,  very  often  directors  of  the 


PRELIMINARY    SURVEYS.  47 

company,  and  obliged  to  subject  his  own 
better  judgment  as  to  what  route  would 
be  best,  to  the  wishes  of  an  interested 
party,  who  is  too  powerful  with  the  com- 
pany for  the  Engineer  to  differ  from. 
Again  a  wealthy  individual  along  the  line 
proposes  to  subscribe  liberally  to  the 
stock  "  if  the  line  goes  here  or  there,"  or 
any  place  except  the  right  place,  where 
the  Engineer  has  fixed  it.  And  so  very 
often,  owing  to  such  influences,  the  road 
is  improperly  located ;  large  expenses  are 
incurred  to  correct  it ;  profits  melt  away 
on  the  poorly  located  line,  and  the  road 
is  not  only  a  failure,  but  the  Engineer's 
ability  is  questioned  much  to  his  injury. 
It  is  surprising  how  necessary  a  thing  it 
is  for  a  man  to  "  serve  his  time"  to  every 
profession  except  Engineering.  The  mo- 
ment a  railroad  is  projected,  every  man 
•along  the  line  becomes  a  good  locating 
Engineer,  and  viewing  with  disgust  the 
line  as  proposed  by  the  Engineer  who  has 
devoted  a  dozen  or  more  years  of  his  life 


48  THE    KAILWAY   BUILDER. 

in  the  practice  of  his  profession,  points 
out  what  route  he  would  take.  Still,  as 
before  suggested,  an  Engineer  should  use 
his  own  judgment,  ignoring  all  counter 
suggestions  by  unskilful  men,  acting  in 
perfect  fairness  to  all  parties,  and  with 
strict  fidelity  to  the  company  employing 
him.  Much  more  could  be  said  regarding 
location,  but  the  writer  is  necessarily 
restricted  to  a  simple  hand-book,  and  the> 
temptation  to  write  further  cannot  be  in- 
dulged in.  Several  very  valuable  works 
are  in  print,  treating  the  subject  in  every 
detail,  and  these  should  be  studied  care- 
fully before  the  young  engineer  under- 
takes the  location  of  a  railway. 

If  the  country  through  which  the 
line  is  intended  to  run  is  well  adapted 
to  the  construction,  a  preliminary  sur- 
vey can  be  arrived  at,  and  an  estimate 
made  in  a  comparatively  short  time, 
regulated,  of  course,  by  the  length  of 
the  road  and  the  difficulties  to  be  en- 
countered. A  fair  estimate  of  the  cost 


PRELIMINARY   SURVEYS.  49 

of  a  preliminary  survey  and  estimate, 
is  $35.00  per  mile,  including  everything 
(although  much  higher  charges  are  made 
by  Engineers  of  a  speculative  turn  of 
mind),  plan,  profile,  and  estimate.  When 
this  has  been  made  and  the  feasibility  of 
building  the  road  is  decided,  negotiations 
should  be  commenced  for  the  "RIGHT  OF 
WAY,"  which  will  determine,  in  a  great 
measure,  whether  the  road  can  be  built. 
When  it  is  known  that  the  road  is  really 
to  be  built,  and  through  certain  proper- 
ties, the  value  of  those  "  estates"  imme- 
diately assumes  gigantic  proportions ; 
persons  who  before  the  survey  was  made 
were  willing  to  give  their  lands  away 
wholesale  to  the  railroad  company,  now 
become  strangely  reluctant  even  to  sell 
the  smallest  morsel.  The  frailty  of  human 
nature  is  sadly  exemplified  in  these  pro- 
perty owners,  and  a  barrier,  sometimes 
insurmountable,  is  placed  in  the  com- 
pany's way.  In  this  dilemma,  thore  are 
two  alternatives :  one  is  to  revise  the  line, 
4 


50  THE   RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

take  another  route,  and  avoid  altogether 
the  exorbitant  charges ;  and  the  other  is, 
the  law  and  courts ;  the  latter  are  very  often 
appealed  to,  but  only  as  a  last  resort,  it 
being  exceedingly  difficult  to  find  twelve 
jurymen  who  are  not  more  or  less  in  close 
sympathy  with  the  individual,  and 
against  the  company.  An  amicable  adj  ust- 
ment  should  be  made,  if  possible,  between 
the  parties  by  an  uninterested  arbitrator 
taken  from  a  different  section  of  country. 
This  will  be  found  the  easiest  and  the 
simplest  form  of  adjustment.  Should  the 
property  owners  be  willing  to  concede 
sufficient  ground  for  the  right  of  way,  a 
conditional  or  preliminary  agreement  is 
entered  into,  in  the  following  form  : — 

Brant  of  Right  of  Way  and  Release  of 
Damages. 


To  the Railroad  Co. 

Know  all  men  by  these  presents,  That 
whereas     "  THE  EAILROAD 

COMPANY,"  a  corporation  formed  under 


PRELIMINARY   SURVEYS.  51 

and  in  pursuance  of  the  laws  of  the 
State  of ,  for  the  purpose  of  locat- 
ing and  constructing  a  Kailroad  from 

to  in  said  State,  have  located 

or  are  about  to  locate  their  Eailroad 
through,  over,  or  upon  the  lands,  pre- 
mises, and  property  of  the  undersigned 

in County  in  the  said  State,  and 

for  the  said  purpose  are  desirous  of  obtain- 
ing the  Eight  of  "Way  in,  through,  and 
upon  the  said  lands  and  premises.  Now, 
therefore,  the  said  -  -  for  and  in  conside- 
ration of  the  location  of  the  said  Kailroad 
through  and  upon  his  lands,  and  of  the 
advantages  which  may  accrue  to  him 
therefrom,  and  also  of  the  sum  of  one 
dollar  in  hand  paid,  the  receipt  whereof  is 

hereby  acknowledged, doth  hereby, 

for  himself,  his  heirs,  executors  or  ad- 
ministrators, give,  grant,  sell  and  convey 
unto  the  said  "  THE  -  -  KAILROAD 

COMPANY,"  their  successors  and  assigns, 
for  the  uses  and  purposes  of  their  Kail- 
road  and  the  construction  of  works  con- 


52  THE    RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

nected  therewith,  the  absolute  Eight  of 
Way  through,  over  and  upon  his  said 
lands  the  whole  distance  of  the  said  Rail- 
road through  and  over  the  same,  with 
the  unrestricted  right  and  privilege  to 
enter  upon,  locate  and  construct  their 
railroad  on,  over  and  through  his  lands 
as  aforesaid,  to  such  extent  as  may  be 
necessary  for  the  location,  construction, 
opening  and  use  of  said  Railroad,  not 

exceeding feet  in  width  on  and  of 

the  said  lands,  with  such  additional  width, 
however,  as  may  be  required  at  deep 
cuttings  and  embankments,  one -half  there- 
of on  each  side  of  the  Centre  Line  of 
the  main  track  of  said  Railroad  as  laid 
down  and  established  by  the  said  Com- 
pany on  their  located  route,  and  the  full 
liberty  to  make,  maintain  and  use  the 
said  Railroad  over,  through  and  upon  the 
said  lands,  with  the  usual  Road-bed, 
Slopes,  Berms,  Ditches,  Spoil-banks  and 
Borrow- pits ;  and  also  the  right  to  take 
and  use  any  water  from  springs  or  streams 


PRELIMINARY   SURVEYS.  53 

upon  the  said  lands,  and  to  conduct  and 
carry  water  by  pipe  or  otherwise  over, 
through  or  under  the  same,  and  to  estab- 
lish Water-stations  thereon. 

And  the  said further  covenants  and 

agrees  with  the  said  Eailroad  Company, 
their  successors  and  assigns,  that  on  the 

said   Eailroad   from  -      -  City   to   

City  being  completed  and  placed  in  run- 
ning order,  he,  his  heirs,  executors  or 
administrators,  at  the  proper  cost  and  re- 
quest of  the  said  Eailroad  Company,  will 
grant  and  convey  the  lands  and  premises 
hereinbefore  described,  and  the  rights  and 
privileges  appurtenant  thereto,  to  the  said 
Eailroad  Company,  their  successors  and 
assigns,  so  long  as  the  same  shall  be  re- 
quired for  the  uses  of  the  said  Eailroad 
by  the  said  Company,  its  successors  and 
assigns,  -  -  and  in  said  Instrument  of 
Conveyance  to  discharge  and  forever  re- 
lease the  said  "THE  -  -  EAIL- 
ROAD COMPANY,"  their  successors  and 
assigns,  from  any  further  payments  for, 


54  THE   RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

or  on  account  of  the  use  and  occupancy 
of  the  said  lands  and  premises,  as  well 
as  for  any  and  all  damages  which  have 
accrued  or  which  may  hereafter  accrue 
by  reason  of  the  location,  construction, 
operating  and  using  of  the  said  Kail- 
road  through,  over,  and  upon  the  lands 
aforesaid.  Provided,  however,  that  the 
construction  of  the  said  Eailroad  shall  be 
begun  within  twelve  months,  and  the 
said  Eoad  shall  be  in  operation  within 
two  years  from  this  date. 

In  witness  whereof,  the  said  -     -  hath 
hereunto  set  his  hand  and  affixed  his  seal 

the day  of A.  D.  1877. 

.    [SEAL.] 

WITNESS  : 


The  following  table  shows  how  much 
ground  is  required,  per  mile  and  hundred 
feet,  for  different  widths  for  Right  of  Way 
purposes. 


PRELIMINARY   SURVEYS. 


55 


Table  of  acres  required  per  mile,  and  per 
100  feet  for  different  widths  (Traut- 
wiiie). 


Width 

Acres 

Acres 

Width 

Acres 

Amount 

in 
feet. 

per 
mile. 

100  feet. 

in 
feet. 

per 
mile. 

per 
100  feet. 

20 

2.42 

.046 

31 

3.76 

.071 

21 

2.55 

.048 

32 

3.88 

.073 

22 

2.67 

.051 

33 

4.00 

.076 

23 

2.79 

.053 

34 

4.12 

.078 

24 

2.91 

.055 

35 

4.24 

.080 

"1 

3. 

.057 

36 

4.36 

.083 

25 

3.03 

.057 

37 

4.48 

.085 

26 

3.15 

.060 

38 

4.61 

.087 

27 

3.27 

.062 

39 

4.73 

.090 

28 

3.39 

.064 

40 

4.85 

.092 

29 

3.52 

.067 

41 

4.97 

.094 

30 

3.64 

.069 

'4 

5. 

.094 

The  value  of  the  ground,  of  course, 
will  vary  in  different  localities. 

After  the  location  of  the  railroad  has 
been  determined  upon,  the  estimates  made, 
and  the  quantities  computed,  by  calcula- 
tion, the  work  is  ready  for  "  letting,"  and 
the  contract  for  building  the  road  can  be 
made.  The  following  form  of  contract  is 


56  THE    RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

taken  from  a  contract  made  by  the  Perm, 
sylvania  Eailroad. 

Form  of  Contract  and  Proposal. 
Kailroad. 

CONTRACT. 

Articles  of  Agreement  made  and  con- 
cluded this  -  -  day  of  -  —  in  the  year  of 
our  Lord  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and 

by  and  between  —    —  of  the  first  part, 

and   the railroad   company,  of  the 

second  part,  witnesseth,  that  for  and  in 
consideration  of  the  payments  and  cove- 
nants hereinafter  mentioned,  to  be  made 
and  performed  by  the  said  Kailroad  Com- 
pany, the  said  party  of  the  first  part 
doth  hereby  covenant  and  agree  to  con- 
struct and  finish,  in  the  most  substantial 
and  workman-like  manner,  to  the  satis- 
faction and  acceptance  of  the  Engineer  of 
said  Company,  all  the  graduation,  ma- 
sonry, and  such  other  work  as  may  be 

required  on  Section  -  — ,  numbered 

of  said  road :  the  said  work  to  be  finished 


UJNiVERSITY 


PRELIMINARY   SURVEYS.  57 

as  described  in  the  following  SPECIFICA- 
TIONS, and  agreeably  to  the  directions, 
from  time  to  time,  of  the  said  Engineer 

or  his  assistants,  on  or  before  the day 

of in  the  year  one  thousand  eight 

hundred  and . 

SPECIFICATIONS. 

1.  Graduation. — Under  this  head  will 
be  included  all  excavations  and  embank- 
ments required  for  the  formation  of  the 
road-bed ;    cutting  all  ditches   or  drains 
about   or   contiguous   to   the    road,    the 
foundation   of  culverts,    and   bridges  or 
walls ;  the  excavations  and  embankments 
necessary  for  reconstructing  turnpikes  or 
common  roads,  in  cases  where  they  are 
destroyed  or  interfered  with  in  the  forma- 
tion of  the  road ;  and  all  other  excava- 
tions or  embankments  connected  with  or 
incident  to  the  construction  of  said  rail- 
road. 

2.  All  cuttings  shall  be  measured  in 
the  excavations,  and   estimated   by  the 


58  THE    EAILWAY   BUILDER. 

cubic  yard,  under  the  following  heads, 
viz. :  earth,  loose  rock,  solid  rock,  tunnel 
excavation,  embankment. 

Earth  will  include  clay,  sand,  loam, 
gravel,  and  all  other  earthy  matter,  or 
earth  containing  loose  stone  or  boulders, 
intermixed,  which  do  not  exceed  in  size 
three  cubic  feet. 

Loose  Rock  shall  include  all  stone  and 
detached  rock  lying  in  separate  and  con- 
tiguous masses,  containing  not  over  one 
cubic  yard ;  also  all  slate  or  other  rock 
that  can  be  quarried  without  blasting, 
although  blasting  may  be  occasionally 
resorted  to. 

Solid  Rock  includes  all  rock  occurring 
in  masses,  exceeding  one  cubic  yard, 
which  cannot  be  removed  without  blast- 
ing. 

Tunnel  Excavation  includes  all  excava- 
tion necessarily  taken  from  the  area  re- 
quired to  be  tunnelled. 

3.  The  road  will  be  graded  for  a  single 
track,  except  where  otherwise  directed 


PRELIMINARY    SURVEYS.  59 

by  the  Engineer ;  with  side  slopes  of  such 
inclinations  as  the  Engineer  shall,  in  each 
case,  designate,  and  in  conformity  to  such 
breadths,  depths,  and  slopes  of  cuttings 
and  fillings  as  may  have  been,  or  may 
hereafter  be,  determined  upon  by  said 
Engineer. 

4.  Earth,  gravel,  and  other  materials 
taken  from  excavation  (except  when 
otherwise  directed  by  the  Engineer)  shall 
be  deposited  in  the  adjacent  embank- 
ments, the  cost  of  removing  which  will 
be  included  in  the  price  paid  for  excava- 
tion. It  will  be  understood,  therefore, 
that  the  excavation  price  is  designed  to 
pay  for  the  excavation,  loading,  hauling, 
and  dumping  in  embankments,  all  mate- 
rial necessarily  procured  from  within  the 
line  of  the  railroad. 

Embankment  includes  all  material 
placed  in  the  embankments  of  the  road- 
way of  the  railroad,  or  common  roads 
which  may  be  crossed  or  changed  Li  their 
locations ;  this  material,  when  taken  from 


60  THE    KAILWAY   BUILDER. 

the  excavations  of  the  railway,  will  be 
paid  for  as  embankment  when  hauled  to 
a  distance  of  1000  feet ;  in  that  case  it  will 
be  paid  for  as  excavation,  and  also  as 
embankment ;  when  hauled  to  a  distance 
less  than  1000  feet,  it  will  be  paid  for  as 
excavation  only.  In  procuring  materials 
for  embankment  from  without  the  line  of 
the  road,  the  place  will  be  designated  by 
the  Engineer  in  charge  of  the  work  :  and 
in  excavating  and  removing  it,  care  must 
be  taken  to  injure  or  disfigure  the  land 
as  little  as  possible.  The  embankments 
will  be  formed  in  layers  of  such  depth 
(generally  one  foot),  and  the  materials 
disposed  and  distributed  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  the  Engineer  may  direct,  the 
required  allowance  for  settling  being 
added. 

Material  necessarily  wasted  from  the 
cuttings  shall  be  used  in  widening  the 
banks,  or  be  deposited  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  road,  according  to  the  directions  of 
the  Engineer. 


PRELIMINARY    SURVEYS.  61 

5.  The  ground  to  be  occupied  by  the 
excavations  and  embankments,  together 
with  a  space  of  twelve  feet  beyond  the 
slope-stakes  on  each  side,  or  ten  feet  be- 
yond the  berme  ditch,  where  one  is  re- 
quired, will  be  cleared  of  all  trees,  brush, 
and  other  perishable  matter.     Where  the 
filling  does  not  exceed  two  and  one-half 
feet,  the  trees,  stumps,  and  saplings  must 
be  grubbed,  but  under  all  other  portions 
v>f  the  embankment,  it  will  be  sufficient 
that  they  be  cut  close  to  the  earth ;  no 
separate    allowance   will    be    made    for 
grubbing  and  clearing,  but  its  cost  will 
be  included  in  the  price  for  excavation. 

6.  Contractors,  when   desired  by   the 
Engineer  in  charge  of  the  work,  will  de- 
posit on  the  side  of  the  road,  or  at  such 
convenient  points  as  may  be  designated, 
any  stone  or  rock  that  they  may  exca- 
vate;   and   if,  in  so  doing,  they  should 
deposit   material   required  for   embank- 
ment, the  additional  cost,  if  any,  of  pro- 
curing other  materials  from  without  the 


62  THE    RAILWAY    BUILDER. 

road,  will  be  allowed.  All  stone  or  rock 
excavated  and  deposited  as  above,  to- 
gether with  all  timber  removed  from  the 
line  of  the  road,  will  be  considered  the 
property  of  the  railroad  company,  and 
the  contractors  upon  the  respective  sec- 
tions will  be  responsible  for  its  safe  keep- 
ing until  removed  by  said  Company,  or 
until  his  work  is  finished. 

7.  The  line  of  the  road,  or  the  gradi- 
ents, may  be  changed  if  the  Engineer 
shall  consider  such  changes  necessary  or 
expedient ;  and  for  any  considerable  al- 
terations, the  injury  or  advantage  to  the 
contractor  will  be  estimated,  and  such  al- 
lowance or  deduction  made  in  the  prices 
as  the  Engineer  may  deem  just  and  equit- 
able; but  no  claim  for  an  increase  in 
prices  of  excavation  or  embankment  on 
the  part  of  the  contractor  will  be  allowed 
or  considered  unless  made  in  writing 
before  the  work  on  that  part  of  the  sec- 
tion, where  the  alteration  has  been  made, 
shall  have  commenced.  The  Engineer 


PRELIMINARY   SURVEYS.  63 

may,  also,  on  the  conditions  last  named, 
increase  or  diminish  the  length  of  any 
section  for  the  purpose  of  more  equalizing 
or  balancing  the  excavations  and  embank- 
ments. 

8.  Whenever  the  route  of  the  railroad 
is  traversed  by  public  or  private  roads, 
commodious  passing  places  must  be  kept 
open  and  in  safe  condition  for  use ;  and 
in  passing  through  farms  the  contractor 
must  always  keep  up  such  necessary 
fences  as  will  be  needed  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  crops. 

MASONRY. 

All  masonry  will  be  estimated  and  paid 
for  by  the  cubic  yard  of  twenty-seven  feet 
(cubic),  and  will  be  included  under  the 
following  heads,  viz.,:  culvert  masonry^ 
bridge  masonry,  vertical  and  slope  wall 
masonry. 

1.  Culvert  Masonry. — All  rectangular 
culverts  will  be  built  dry,  with  a  v^ater 
way  of  not  less  than  two  and  a  half  by 


64  THE    RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

three  feet ;  the  abutments  will  rest  on  a 
pavement  of  stone,  set  edgewise,  of  at 
least  ten  inches  in  depth,  confined  and 
secured  at  the  ends  by  deep  curb-stones, 
which  must  be  protected  from  undermin- 
ing by  broken  stone  placed  in  such  quan- 
tities and  position  as  the  Engineer  may 
direct.  The  abutment  walls  will  not  be 
less  than  two  feet  thick,  and  built  of  good- 
sized  and  well- shaped  stone,  properly  laid 
and  bound  together  by  stones,  occasionally 
extending  entirely  through  the  walls. 
The  upper  course  to  have  at  least  one- 
half  of  the  stone  headers ;  and  the  struc- 
tures in  no  case  to  be  less  than  twelve 
inches  wide ;  no  stone  in  this  course  to 
be  less  than  six  inches  thick.  The  cover- 
ing to  be  of  sound,  strong  stone,  at  least 
twelve  inches  thick,  and  to  lap  its  whole 
width  not  less  than  ten  inches  on  each 
abutment.  The  thickness  of  the  covering, 
stone,  and  dimensions  of  the  whole  walls 
to  be  increased  at  the  discretion  of  the 
Engineer. 


PRELIMINARY   SURVEYS.  65 

2.  Bridge  Masonry. — When  rock  foun- 
dation cannot  be  had  for  abutments  and 
piers,  the  masonry  shall  be  started  upon 
hewn  timber,  sunk  to  such  a  depth  as  to 
protect  it  from  decay,  and  to  prevent  the 
possibility  of  underwashing.  The  timber 
platforms  will  be  composed  of  one  or  more 
courses,  according  to  the  depth  of  the 
water,  the  height  of  the  masonry,  or  other 
circumstances  of  which  the  Engineer  shall 
judge  and  determine.  The  masonry  will 
be  of  two  qualities,  either  to  be  adopted 
at  the  discretion  of  the  Engineer.  FIKST 
QUALITY  shall  be  rock  range  work.  The 
stone  to  be  accurately  squared,  jointed, 
and  bedded,  and  laid  in  courses  of  not 
less  than  twelve  inches  thick,  nor  exceed- 
ing twenty  inches  in  thickness,  regularly 
decreasing  from  bottom  to  top  of  pier  or 
abutment.  The  stretchers  shall,  in  no 
case,  have  less  than  sixteen  inches  bed 
for  a  twelve  inch  course,  and  for  all 
courses  above  sixteen  inches,  at  least  as 

much  bed  as  face;  they  shall  generally 
5 


66  THE    RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

be  at  least  four  feet  in  length.  The  head- 
ers will  be  of  similar  size  as  stretchers, 
and  shall  hold  the  size  in  the  heart  of  the 
wall  that  they  show  on  the  face,  and  be 
so  arranged  as  to  occupy  one-fifth  of  the 
face  of  the  wall,  and  they  will  be  simi- 
larly disposed  in  the  back.  When  the 
thickness  of  the  wall  will  admit  of  their 
interlocking  they  will  be  disposed  in  that 
manner.  When  the  wall  is  too  thick  to 
admit  of  that  arrangement,  stones  not  less 
than  four  feet  in  length  will  be  placed 
transversely  in  the  heart  of  the  wall  to 
connect  the  two  opposite  sides  of  it.  The 
stone  for  the  heart  of  the  wall  will  be  of 
the  same  thickness  as  those  in  the  face 
and  back,  and  must  be  well  fitted  to  their 
places ;  any  remaining  interstices  will  be 
filled  with  ordinary  masonry.  The  face 
stones  will,  with  the  exception  of  the 
draught,  be  generally  left  with  the  face 
as  they  come  from  the  quarry  unless  the 
projections  above  the  draught  should  ex- 
ceed two  inches,  in  which  case  they  must 


PRELIMINARY   SURVEYS.  67 

be  roughly  scabbed  down  to  that  point. 
The  abutments  or  piers,  and  such  por- 
tions of  them  as  the  Engineer  may  direct, 
shall  be  covered  with  a  course  of  coping 
not  less  than  ten  inches  thick,  well- 
dressed,  and  fastened  together  with  clamps 
of  iron. 

The  SECOND  QUALITY  of  bridge  masonry 
will  be  rubble  work,  laid  in  irregular 
courses,  and  will  consist  of  stone  contain- 
ing generally  six  cubic  feet  each,  so  dis- 
posed as  to  make  a  firm  and  compact 
work ;  and  no  stone  in  the  work  shall 
contain  less  than  two  cubic  feet,  except 
for  filling  up  the  interstices  between  the 
large  blocks  in  the  heart  of  the  wall ;  at 
least  one-fifth  of  the  face  shall  be  com- 
posed of  headers,  extending  full  size  four 
feet  into  the  wall,  and  from  the  back  the 
same  proportion  and  of  the  same  dimen- 
sions, so  arranged  that  a  header  in  the 
back  shall  be  between  two  headers  in  the 
face.  The  corner  stones  shall  be  neatly 


68  THE    KAILWAY    BUILDER. 

hammer-dressed  so  as  to  have  horizontal 
beds  and  vertical  joints. 

3.  Vertical  and  Breast    Walls.  —  The 
walls  will  be  good,  dry  rubble  work,  the 
stones  to  be  of  such  dimensions  and  laid 
with  such  batter   as   the   Engineer  may 
direct. 

4.  BKICK  WORK. — Where  bricks  are 
used  in  piers  or  abutments  of  arched  or 
open  bridges  or  tunnels,   they  shall  be 
made  of  the   best   clay,  well   tempered, 
moulded,    and   burnt.      The    sizes   after 
burning  to  be  nine  inches  long,  four  and 
one-quarter   inches   wide,  and   two   and 
one-half  inches  thick ;    laid  in  the  best 
hydraulic    mortar,    grouted    full    every 
three  courses,  and  made  with  such  pro- 
portions   of    cement   and    sand    as    the 
Engineer  may  direct.     The  materials  for 
the  mortar  to  be  furnished  by  the  con- 
tractor.    The  joints  to  be  of  such  thick- 
ness, and  the  bond  to  be  of  old  English 
or  Flemish,  or  such  other  character  as  the 
Engineer  may  prescribe,   either  for  the 


PRELIMINARY   SURVEYS.  69 

walls  or  arches.  No  bats,  cracked, 
broken,  or  salmon  brick  to  be  used  in 
the  work. 

The  quality  of  the  stone  or  brick  of 
which  the  masonry  shall  be  built  must  be 
well  suited  to  the  kind  of  structure  in 
which  it  is  used,  according  to  the  judg- 
ment of  the  Engineer.  All  masonry, 
whether  of  stone  or  brick,  to  be  estimated 
and  paid  for  by  the  cubic  yard  of  twenty- 
seven  cubic  feet.  Such  portions  of  the 
masonry  as  the  Engineer  may  require  to 
be  laid  in  lime  mortar  or  hydraulic  cement, 
will  be  so  laid. 

5.  The    prices    per    cubic    yard    for 
masonry  shall  in  every  case  include  the 
furnishing    of    all    materials,    excepting 
lime  and  cement,  the  cost  of  scaffolding, 
centering,  etc.,  and  all  the  expenses  at- 
tending the  delivery  of  the  materials,  and 
all  risks  from  floods  and  otherwise. 

6.  No  charge  shall  be  made  by  the  con- 
tractor for  hindrances  or  delay  from  any 
cause  in  the  progress  of  any  portion  of 


70  THE    RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

the  work  in  this  contract,  but  it  may  en- 
title him  to  an  extension  of  time  allowed 
for  completing  the  work,  sufficient  to 
compensate  for  the  detention ;  to  be  de- 
termined by  the  Chief  Engineer,  provided 
he  shall  give  the  Engineer  in  charge  im- 
mediate notice  in  writing  of  the  cause  of 
the  detention. 

Nor  shall  any  claim  be  allowed  for 
extra  work,  unless  the  same  shall  be  done 
in  pursuance  of  an  order  from  the  Engi- 
neer in  charge,  and  the  claim  made  at  the 
first  settlement  after  the  work  was  exe- 
cuted, unless  the  Chief  Engineer  at  his 
discretion  should  direct  the  claim  or  such 
part  as  he  may  deem  just  and  equitable 
to  be  allowed. 

And  the  said  -  -  Eailroad  Company 
doth  promise  and  agree  to  pay  to  the  said 
party  of  the  first  part,  for  completing  this 
contract,  as  follows,  viz. : — 

For  earth  excavation,          —  cents  per  cub.  yard. 
For  loose  rock  excavation,  —     "         "         " 
For  solid  rock  excavation, —     "         "         " 


PRELIMINARY   SURVEYS. 


71 


Tunnel  excavation,  —  cents  per  cubic  yard. 

For  embankment,  —     "         "         " 

For  bridge  masonry, 

1st  quality,  —     "         "         " 

2d  quality,  —     "         "         " 

For  rectangular  culverts,    —     "         "         " 
For  brick  arches  laid  in 

cement,  —     "         "         " 

For  paving  in  foundations, —     "         "         " 
For  vertical  walls  or  breast 

walls,  —     "         "         " 

For  timbers  in  foundations, 

in  position, 
For  timber  worked  in 

trestling, 

For  timber  in  bridges,         — 
For  workmanship  of  timber 

in  bridges, 
For  wrought  iron,  in 

position, 

For  cast  iron,  in  position,    —     "         "         " 
Any  and  all  other  items  at  the  Engineer's  estimate. 

On  or  after  the  first  day  of  each  month 
during  the  progress  of  this  work,  an  esti- 
mate shall  be  made  of  the  relative  value 
of  the  work  done,  to  be  judged  of  by  the 
Engineer,  and  upon  his  certificate  of  the 
amount  being  presented  to  the  Treasurer 


—  "      per  cub.  foot. 

—  "    per  1000  ft.  B.  M. 

((  U 


—     ' '      per  pound. 


72  THE   KAILWAY   BUILDER. 

of  the  Kailroad  Company  the  amount  of 
said  estimate  shall  be  paid  to  the  party 
of  the  first  part,  at  such  time  and  place 
as  the  said  Treasurer  may  designate ;  and 
when  all  the  work  embraced  in  this  con- 
tract is  completed  agreeably  to  the  speci- 
fications, and  in  accordance  with  the 
directions,  and  to  the  satisfaction  and 
acceptance  of  the  Engineer,  there  shall 
be  a  final  estimate  made  of  the  quality, 
character,  and  value  of  said  work,  agree- 
ably to  the  terms  of  this  agreement,  when 
the  balance  appearing  due  to  the  said 
party  of  the  first  part  shall  be  paid  to 

upon giving  a  release,   under 

seal  of  the  said  Railroad  Company,  from 
all  claims  or  demands  whatsoever,  growing 
in  any  manner  out  of  this  agreement.  It 
is  further  covenanted  and  agreed  between 
the  said  parties  that  the  said  party  of  the 
first  part  shall  not  let  or  transfer  this  con- 
tract to  any  person  (excepting  for  the 
delivery  of  materials)  without  the  consent 
of  the  Engineer,  but  will  give  personal 


PRELIMINAKY   SURVEYS.  73 

attention  to  the  work.  It  is  farther 
agreed  that  the  work  embraced  in  this 

contract  shall  be  commenced  within 

days  from  this  date  and  prosecuted  with 
such  force  as  the  Engineer  shall  deem 
adequate  to  its  completion  within  the 
time  specified,  and  if  at  any  time  the.  said 
party  of  the  first  part  shall  refuse  or 
neglect  to  prosecute  the  work  with  a  force 
sufficient  in  the  opinion  of  the  said  Engi- 
neer for  its  completion  within  the  time 
specified  in  this  agreement,  then,  and  in 
that  case,  the  Engineer  in  charge,  or  such 
other  agent  as  the  Engineer  may  desig- 
nate, may  proceed  to  employ  such  a 
number  of  workingmen,  laborers,  and 
overseers  as  may,  in  the  opinion  of  the 
said  Engineer,  be  necessary  to  insure  the 
completion  of  the  work  within  the  time 
hereinbefore  limited,  at  such  wages  as  he 
may  find  it  necessary  or  expedient  to 
give,  pay  all  persons  so  employed,  and 
charge  over  the  amount  so  paid  to  the 
party  of  the  first  part,  as  for  so  much 


74  THE    RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

money  paid  to  said  party  of  the  first  part 
on  this  contract ;  or  the  said  Engineer 
may,  at  his  discretion,  for  the  failure  to 
prosecute  the  work  with  an  adequate 
force,  for  non-compliance  with  his  direc- 
tions in  regard  to  the  manner  of  con- 
structing it,  or  for  any  other  omission  or 
neglect  of  the  requirements  of  this  agree- 
ment and  specifications  on  the  part  of  the 
party  of  the  first  part,  declare  this  con- 
tract, or  any  portion  or  section  embraced 
in  it,  forfeited,  which  declaration  and  for- 
feiture shall  exonerate  the  said  - 
Railroad  Company  from  any  and  all  obli- 
gations and  liabilities  arising  under  this 
contract,  the  same  as  if  this  agreement 
had  never  been  made,  and  the  reserved 

percentage  of upon  any  work  done 

by  the  party  of  the  first  part  may  be 
retained  forever  by  the  said  Railroad 
Company.  And  it  is  mutually  agreed 
and  distinctly  understood  that  the  de- 
cision of  the  Chief  Engineer  shall  be 
final  and  conclusive  in  any  dispute  which 


PRELIMINARY   SURVEYS.  75 

may  arise  between  the  parties  to  this 
agreement,  relative  to  or  touching  the 
same,  and  each  and  every  of  said  parties 
do  hereby  waive  any  right  of  action,  suit 
or  suits,  or  other  remedy  in  law  or  other- 
wise, by  virtue  of  said  covenants,  so  that 
the  decision  of  said  Engineer  shall,  in 
the  nature  of  an  award,  be  final  and  con- 
clusive on  the  rights  and  claims  of  said 
parties. 

IN  WITNESS  WHEREOF,  the  President  of 
the  -  -  Eailroad  Company  hath  signed 
the  same,  and  caused  the  corporate  seal 
of  said  Company  to  be  attached,  and  the 

said  -     -  ha —  hereunto  set hand — 

and  seal —  the  day  and  year  first  above 
written. 

.    [SEAL.] 

— .    [SEAL.] 
— .    [SEAL.] 

.    [SEAL.] 

WITNESS  : 


76 


THE    RAILWAY   BUILDER. 


KAILROAD  PROPOSALS. 


Excavation  per  cubic  yard,  earth., 

"  loose  rock, 

"  "         "  solid     " 

"  "          "  tunnel, 

Embankment  per  cubic  yard, 
Masonry  (per  yard  of  27  cubic  feet) , 
11        of  bridges,  1st  quality, 
of  bridges,  2d  quality, 
"        of  arches,  stone, 
"        of  arches,  brick, 
"        of  rectangular  culverts, 
"        of  paving  in  foundations, 
11        of  vertical  or  breast  walls, 
Timber  (per  1000  feet,  B.  M.) 
"      in  bridges, 
11      in  trestles, 

Workmanship  (per  1000  feet,  B.  M.) 
"  in  bridges, 

"  in  trestles, 

Timber  per  cubic  foot  in  foundations, 
Iron  per  pound,  in  position, 
Wrought  iron  per  pound,  in  position, 
Cast  "         "  "  " 


The  undersigned  hereby  propose  to  the 
Eailroad    Company   to   do   all   the 


work  on  either  or  all  of  the  sections  to 


PRELIMINARY   SURVEYS.  77 

which,  prices  are  affixed  in  the  schedule, 
according  to  the  conditions  and  specifica- 
tions contained  in  the  printed  form  of 
contract,  a  copy  of  which  is  annexed; 
and,  on  the  acceptance  of  this  proposal 
for  all  or  either  of  the  above  sections  do 

hereby  bind to  enter  into  and 

execute  a  contract  in  said  form  for  the 
prices  above  named. 

18- 
Proposer's  Eesidence, 

Nearest  Post-office.     Signed, 


The  above  form  of  Proposal  is  filled 
in  by  the  contractor  and  attached  to 
the  blank  form  of  contract.  This  con- 
stitutes his  bid  for  the  work,  and  is 
considered,  with  others,  by  the  railway 
officials  on  some  previously  advertised 
day. 


CHAPTER  III. 

COST  OF  EARTHWORK. 

THE  work  required  to  bring  the  natu- 
ral formation  of  the  ground  to  the  grade 
lines  of  the  proposed  railroad  is  called 
GRADING,  and  embraces  all  the  cutting 
and  embankment  required.  Being  by  far 
the  most  expensive  part  of  the  enterprise, 
close  attention  must  be  given  to  it  in 
every  estimate  that  is  made.  It  is  di- 
vided into  two  classes;  excavation  and 
embankment.  It  is  very  desirable,  as  far 
as  practicable,  for  the  Engineer  to  so  ar- 
range his  grade  lines  that  all  the  cuttings 
will  yield  sufficient  material  to  form  all 
the  embankment ;  the  nearest  approach 
to  this  happy  equality  of  affairs  generally 
shows  the  cheapest  possible  line ;  but  there 
are  a  great  many  reasons  why  such  a 
course  is  not  practicable :  for  example, 
78 


COST   OF    EAKTHWORK.  79 

the  haul  may  be  too  long  to  bring  the 
material  from  the  cutting  to  the  place  of 
embankment,  consuming  much  time  and 
money ;  in  this  case  "  BOKKOW  PITS"  are 
necessary — that  is,  material  must  be  bor- 
rowed from  other  points  than  the  excava- 
tions of  the  line  to  form  the  banks.  And 
in  the  case  of  excavation  a  "  WASTE"  is 
organized,  or  the  material  from  the  exca- 
vations instead  of  being  used  to  form  the 
banks  is  wasted,  i.  e.,  dumped  into  any  con- 
venient hollow  or  ravine.  This  borrowing 
and  wasting  is  a  very  expensive  business, 
and  as  little  of  it  should  be  allowed  as 
possible ;  a  contractor  should  haul  at  least 
1000  feet  before  any  idea  of  borrowing 
is  allowed.  The  steepest  or  MAXIMUM 
GRADE  of  a  railroad  is  to  be  determined 
by  the  rolling  load  that  is  to  pass  over  it. 
On  the  Phila.  and  Beading  R  E.,  a  train 
of  170  loaded  cars,  each  car  carrying  5 
tons  of  coal,  is  hauled  with  comparative 
ease  on  a  level  grade  at  the  rate  of  12 
miles  an  hour.  The  following  table 


80 


THE    RAILWAY    BUILDER. 


shows  the  number  of  feet  per  100  feet, 
ascending  or  descending  grade,  for  each 
degree  and  minute  of  the  angle  of  in- 
clination up  to  5  feet  per  100  feet. 

Table  of  Grades  per  100  Feet  for  Each 
Degree  to  5  Feet. 


1 

B 

Per 

1007. 

1 

I 

Per 

100'. 

1 

a 

Per 

lOO7. 

1 

d 

§ 

Per 

100'. 

0 

1 

.0291 

0 

30 

.8727 

1 

0 

1.7455 

1 

56  3.3758 

2 

.0582 

31 

.9018 

2 

1.8038 

58  ;  3.4341 

3 

.0873 

32 

.9309 

4 

1.8620 

2 

0  3.4924 

4 

.1164 

33 

.9600 

6 

1.9202 

2i  3.5506 

5 

.1455 

34 

.9891 

8 

1.9784 

4  ,  3.6087 

6 

.1746 

35 

1.0182 

10 

2.0366 

6  3.6669 

7 

.2037 

36 

1.0472 

11 

2.0948 

8  3.7250 

8 

.2328 

37 

1.0763 

12 

2.1530 

10  !  3.7833 

9 

.2619 

38 

1.1054 

14 

2.2112 

12  !  3.8416 

10 

.2909 

39 

1.1345 

16 

2.2694 

14  |  3.8999 

11 

.3200 

40 

1.1636 

18 

2.3277 

16  !  3.9581 

12 

.3491 

41 

1.1927 

20 

2.3859 

18 

4.0163 

13 

.3782 

42  1.2218 

22 

2.4441 

20 

4.0746 

14 

.4073 

43  1.2509 

24 

2.5023 

22 

4.1329 

15 

.4364 

44  1.2800 

26 

2.5604 

24 

4.1911 

16 

.4655 

45  1.3090 

28 

2.6186 

26 

4.2494 

17 

.4946 

46  1.3381 

30 

2.6768 

28 

4.3076 

18 

.5237 

47  1.3672 

32 

2.7350 

30 

4.3659 

19 

.5528 

48  1.3963 

34 

2.7932 

32 

4.4242 

20 

.5818 

49  1.4254 

86 

2.8514 

34 

4.4826 

21 

.6109 

50  1.4545 

38 

2.9097 

36 

4.5409 

22 

.6400 

51  ,  1.4837 

40 

2.9679 

38 

4.5993 

23 

.6691 

52  1.5128 

4-2 

3.0262 

40 

4.6576 

24 

.6982 

53  1.5419 

44 

3.0844 

42 

4.7159 

25 

.7273 

54  1.5710 

46 

3.1427 

44 

4.7742 

26 

.7564 

55  1.6000 

48 

3.2010 

46 

4.8325 

27 

.7855 

56  1.6291 

50 

3.2592 

48 

4.8908 

28 

.8146 

57 

1.6583 

52 

3.3175 

50 

4.9492 

29 

.8436 

58 

1.6873 

54 

3.3758 

52 

5.0075 

59 

1.7164 

COST  OF   EARTHWORK.  81 

To  get  the  grade  in  feet  per  mile, 
multiply  the  figures  given  in  the  col- 
umn headed  PEE  100'  by  52.80.  Thus, 
in  the  Table,  angle  2°  52'  =  5.0075  X 
52.80  =  264.39  feet  per  mile. 

Where  the  trade  will  not  be  very 
heavy  and  the  trains  light,  much  steeper 
grades  can  be  used,  saving  very  mate- 
rially in  the  first  cost  of  the  road, 
by  making  the  excavations  less  heavy, 
and  the  banks  not  so  high.  On  the 
Cumberland  and  Pennsylvania  R.  R. 
there  are  grades  of  186  feet  to  the  mile, 
and  on  some  of  the  recently  constructed 
narrow-gauge  railroads,  the  writer  has 
been  informed  of  grades  of  4  feet  in  the 
100  or  211  feet  to  the  mile.  Often  a 
great  deal  of  unnecessary  expense  is  in- 
curred in  the  endeavor  to  preserve  a 
uniform  grade,  which,  could  be  saved  by 
building  a  "  surface  road"  or  establishing 
the  grades  by  frequent  changes,  so  as  to 
conform  to  the  natural  surface  of  the 
ground. 


82 


THE   RAILWAY   BUILDER. 


The  accompanying  illustration  shows 
the  manner  in  which  the  surface  of  the 
ground  is  plotted  on  profile  paper  and 
the  grade  of  the  railway  established. 

A  good  locomotive  weighing  27  tons 
on  the  drivers  can  haul  up  a  grade  of 

5  feet  to  the  mile,  1150  tons. 

10 

20  "  " 

30  "  " 

40  ' '  ' : 

50  "  " 

60  "  " 

70  "  " 

80  "  " 

90  "  " 

100  "  " 

110  "  " 

120  "  " 

130  "  " 

140  "  " 

150  "  " 

160  "  " 

170  «'  «« 

180  "  " 

The  grade  being  established  to  the  best 
possible  advantage,  the  next  step  is  to 


939  " 

686  " 

536  " 

437  " 

367  " 

315  " 

275  " 
242  " 
216  " 
194  " 

At  a  speed 
v  of  8  to  12 
'  miles  per 
hour. 

175  " 

159  <( 

146  " 

134  " 

123  " 

113  u 

105  " 

13d 

I 
I' 

s 


84  THE   RAILWAY    BUILDER. 

provide  for  "STAKING  OUT"  THE  WOKE:. 
This  is  the  work  of  the  "constructing 
corps."  The  places  to  be  excavated  are 
marked  on  the  ground  by  driving  stakes 
every  50  or  25  feet  along  the  entire  line, 
and  the  number  of  feet  of  cutting  or  em- 
bankment is  marked  on  them  with  red 
chalk  or  "  kehl."  The  side  or  slope  stakes 
are  then  set,  which  indicate  the  position 
of  the  edge  of  the  slope.  For  the  benefit 
of  young  Engineers  perusing  this  work, 
who  are  not  familiar  with  staking  out 
work,  the  writer,  digressing  from  the 
general  plan  of  this  treatise,  takes  the 
occasion  to  introduce  a  simple  rule  for 
"staking  out,"  which  he  has  used  fre- 
quently during  his  practice  in  construc- 
tion work,  as  follows :  When  the  natural 
surface  of  the  ground  is  level,  Add  the 
cut  in  feet  and  decimals,  multiplied  by 
the  slope,  to  one-half  the  road-led.  Thus, 
for  example,  suppose  the  depth  of  the  cut 
required  to  be  20.3  feet,  the  slope  to  be 
1J  to  1,  and  the  road-bed  13  feet,  then. 


COST   OF   EARTHWORK.  85 

by  the  rule  given  above,  we  have  (20.3  x 
li)  +  6.5=36.95  feet,  which  is  the  dis- 
tance from  the  centre  line  to  the  edge  of 
the  slope  on  either  side  of  the  line.  But 
suppose  that  the  natural  surface  of  the 
ground  is  not  level,  then  assume  a  point 
on  the  ground  (apparently  right)  find  its 
height  above  grade  with  the  level,  multi- 
ply this  by  the  slope,  and  add  one-half 
the  road-bed ;  see  how  near  this  calcula- 
tion comes  to  the  measured  distance  from 
the  centre  to  the  assumed  point ;  if  not 
right,  a  second  trial  will  fix  the  point. 
If  the  natural  surface  of  the  ground  is 
very  much  inclined,  stake  out  the  upper 
side  only,  and  allow  the  lower  side  to 
assume  its  own  shape.  The  section  at 
each  station  should  be  plotted  on  cross- 
section  paper  from  which  the  areas  are 
calculated.  With  this  information  ob- 
tained the  cubical  contents  of  each  100 
feet  of  excavation  or  embankment  can 
be  ascertained  by  the  prismoidal  formula 
as  given  on  page  94.  The  ground,  being 


86  THE   RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

staked  out,  is  then  loosened  by  picks  or 
ploughs,  the  latter  generally  being  much 
cheaper  ;  a  single  plough  with  two  horses 
and  men  will  loosen  up  from  200  to  300 
yards  of  stiff  soil  per  day  at  about  1} 
cents  per  yard;  with  the  pick,  a  day's 
work  is  about  25  yards,  or  with  labor  at 
$1.00  per  day  4  cents  per  yard.  Light 
soils  will  average  about  one-half  the 
above,  while  pure  sand  requires  very 
little  labor,  say  \  cent  per  yard.  After 
loosening  the  earth  it  must  be  shovelled 
aside,  or  into  carts  or  wheelbarrows,  and 
then  moved  away.  A  cart  will  hold  about 
J  of  a  cubic  yard,  measured  in  place.  A 
man  can  shovel  and  load  a  cart  in  five 
minutes,  or  for  a  day's  work  of  10  hours, 
120  loads,  or  40  cubic  yards  of  light  mate- 
rial, but  some  deduction  must  be  made 
for  delays,  etc.,  which  would  place  the 
average  at  about  J  or  20  cubic  yards  of 
material  one  man  can  load  into  a  cart 
per  day.  Assuming  the  labor  at  $1.00 
per  day,  the  cost  of  shovelling  into  carts 


87 


88  THE    RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

will  be  about  5  cents  a  yard.  A  cart 
itself  weighs  about  J  a  ton.  After  the 
material  is  loaded  into  carts  it  must  be 
hauled  away  and  dumped  where  it  is 
needed  in  forming  bank,  then  the  cart 
must  return  and  be  loaded  again,  all  of 
which  takes  time.  Trau twine  says :  "  The 
average  speed  of  horses  in  hauling  is 
about  2  J  miles  per  hour,  or  200  feet  per 
minute,  which  is  equal  to  100  feet  of  trip 
each  way,  or  to  100  feet  of  lead,  as  the 
distance  to  which  the  earth  is  hauled  is 
technically  called.  Besides  this,  there  is 
a  loss  of  four  minutes  in  every  trip, 
whether  long  or  short,  in  waiting  to  load, 
dumping,  turning,  etc.  Hence  every  trip 
will  occupy  as  many  minutes  as  there  are 
lengths  of  100  feet  each  in  the  lead,  and 
four  minutes  besides;  therefore,  to  find 
the  number  of  trips  per  day  over  any 
average  lead,  we  divide  the  number  of 
minutes  in  a  working  day  by  the  sum  of 
4  added  to  the  number  of  100 -feet  lengths 


COST   OF   EARTHWORK.  89 

contained  in  the  distance  to  which  the 
earth  has  to  be  removed,  that  is — 

The 
number 

The  number  (600)  of  minutes  in  a  day of  trips 

4+  the  number  of  100  feet-lengths  in  the  lead,  ""  °gr1^ds 

per  cart. 

And  since  J  of  a  cubic  yard,  measured 
before  being  loosened,  makes  an  average 
cart-load,  the  number  of  loads  divided  by 
3  will  give  the  number  of  cubic  yards 
removed  per  day  by  each  cart,  and  the 
cubic  yards  divided  into  the  total  expense 
of  a  cart  per  day  will  give  the  cost  per 
cubic  yard  for  hauling.  In  leads  of  ordi- 
nary length,  one  driver  can  attend  to  4 
carts,  which  at  $1.00  per  day  is  25  cents 
per  cart.  When  labor  is  $1.00  per  day, 
the  expense  of  a  horse  is  about  75  cents, 
and  that  of  the  cart,  including  harness, 
tar,  repairs,  etc.,  25  cents,  making  the 
total  daily  cost  per  cart  $1.00.  The  ex- 
pense of  the  horse  is  the  same  on  Sundays 
and  on  rainy  days  as  when  at  work,  and 
this  consideration  is  included  in  the  75 


90  THE   RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

cents.  Some  contractors  employ  a  greater 
number  of  drivers,  who  also  help  to  load 
the  carts,  so  that  the  expense  is  about  the 
same  in  either  case. 

Example. — How  many  cubic  yards  of 
loam,  measured  in  the  cut,  can  be  hauled 
by  a  horse  and  cart  in  a  day  of  10  work- 
ing hours  (600  minutes),  the  lead  or 
length  of  haul  of  earth  being  1000  feet 
(or  10  lengths  of  100  feet);  and  what 
will  be  the  expense  to  the  contractor  for 
hauling  per  cubic  yard,  assuming  the 
total  cost  of  cart,  horse,  and  driver,  at 
$1.25  ? 
Here 

600  minutes  600 

4+10  lengths  of  100  feet  "      14    : 

And 

43  loads 

3 —  =  14.3  cubic  yards. 

And 

125  cents 

=-{-5 — T-. T  =  8.74  cents  per  cubic  yard." 

14.3  cubic  yards 

After  the  material  is  hauled  away  and 
dumped  into  position,  it  is  necessary  to 


COST  OF   EAKTHWORK.  91 

have  it  nicely  spread  in  layers  on  the 
bank  and  levelled  off.  Still  quoting  from 
Trautwine:  "A  bankman  will  spread 
from  50  to  100  yards  of  either  common 
loam  or  any  of  the  heavier  soils,  clays, 
etc.,  depending  on  their  dryness.  This, 
at  $1.00  per  day,  is  1  to  2  cents  per  cubic 
yard ;  and  we  may  assume  1 J  cents  as  a 
fair  average  for  such  soils,  while  1  cent 
will  suffice  for  light  sandy  soils."  Add 
to  the  above  items,  say  2  cents  per  cubic 
yard  for  keeping  the  haul  in  order,  and 
5  cents  per  yard  for  contingencies,  and 
we  have  the  AVEKAGE  COST  OF  EXCAVAT- 
ING ONE  CUBIC  YARD  OF  EARTH,  and 

placing  it  in  position  in  the  bank,  as  fol- 
lows : — 

Loosening  "by  pick,  4.00  cts.  per  cu.  yd. 

Loading  into  carts, 

Hauling  1000  feet, 

Spreading  into  layers, 

Keeping  haul  in  order, 

Various  contingencies, 

Total  cost  to  contractor,  26.24 

Add  contractor's  profit,  10  #,  2.62 

Total  cost  to  company,    28.86 


92  THE   RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

If  the  material  is  hauled  away  by  men 
and  wheelbarrows,  the  cost  will  exceed 
the  foregoing  by  about  30  per  cent. 

"A    CUBIC   YARD   OF   ROCK    IN    PLACE, 

before  being  blasted,  will  weigh  about 
1.8  tons,  if  sandstone  or  conglomerate 
(150  pounds  per  cubic  foot),  or  2  tons  if 
good  compact  granite,  gneiss,  limestone, 
or  marble  (168  pounds  per  cubic  foot)." 
With  labor  at  $1.00  per  day,  a  fair  esti- 
mate for  LOOSENING  SOLID  ROCK  would 

be  about  50  cents  per  cubic  yard,  and  for 
loose  rock,  say  30  cents  per  cubic  yard, 
while  the  cost  of  loading  and  hauling 
away  would  be  about  25  cents  per  cubic 
yard,  or  the  total  cost  to  the  contractor  for 
loosening,  loading,  hauling  away,  and 
dumping,  say  with  a  haul  of  1000  feet, 
would  be  about  75  cents  per  cubic  yard 
measured  in  place.  Add  to  this  10  per 
cent,  for  contractor's  profit,  and  we  have 

the   ACTUAL    COST   TO    THE    COMPANY,   at 

82.5  cents  per  cubic  yard  of  solid  rock. 
Loose  rock  will  cost  about  55  cents  to 


COST   OF   EARTHWORK.  93 

the  contractor,  or  60.5  cents  to  the  com- 
pany. In  a  mile  of  single  track  railroad 
through  a  rolling  country  it  is  safe  to 
estimate  the  earth  excavation  at  about 
15.000  cubic  yards,  which,  at  say  30  cents 
per  yard,  would  amount  to  $4500.  Also 
estimate,  for  about  1500  cubic  yards  of 
solid  rock,  at  say  85  cents  per  cubic  yard, 
which  would  amount  to  $1275.  And 
1500  cubic  yards  of  loose  rock,  at  say 
60  cents  per  yard,  amounting  to  $900, 
which  gives  us  a  total  for  the  cost  of 
earthwork  PER  MILE  of  single  track  rail- 
road of  $6675.  Circumstances,  of  course, 
will  vary  these  figures  considerably — they 
are  based  on  average  figures,  taken  from 
several  estimates  of  roads  already  built, 
through  a  rolling  country,  but  one  pre- 
senting no  engineering  difficulties ;  the 
maximum  haul  is  considered  1000  feet  in 
length.  If  the  cutting  is  over  10  or  12 
feet  in  depth,  the  present  day  contractor 
usually  uses  a  steam  shovel.  This  ma- 
chine is  capable  of  scooping  up  from  1 


94  THE   RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

to  2  cubic  yards  of  earth  at  each  move- 
ment, or  about  3  to  6  yards  per  minute. 
One  of  these  machines  costing  from 
$6000  to  $8000  will  excavate  from  500 
to  1500  cubic  yards  of  loosened  earth 
or  gravel  daily.  The  cost  of  operating 
one  of  these  shovels  is  placed  at  $30  per 
day,  or  about  one-half  the  cost  per  cubic 
yard  of  hand  shoveling  when  reduced 
to  a  basis  of  $1.00  per  day  for  labor. 
The  rule  for  calculating  the  cubic  con- 
tents of  excavation  is  contained  in  the 
following  PRISMOIDAL  FORMULA.  "Add 
together  the  areas  of  the  two  parallel  ends 
of  the  prismoid,  and  four  times  the  area  of 
a  section  half  way  and  parallel  to  them; 
and  multiply  the  sum  by  one-sixth  of  the 
length  of  the  prismoid,  measured  perpen- 
dicularly to  its  two  parallel  ends."  In 
railroads,  the  prismoids  are  generally  100 
feet  long,  it  is  therefore  easier  to  multiply 
the  sum  of  the  areas  in  square  feet  by  100, 
and  divide  the  product  by  6. 


COST   OF    EARTHWORK. 


95 


Quantity  of  Earths  equal  to  a  Ton. 

Sand,  river,  as  filled  into  carts,  21  cubic  feet. 

Sand,  pit     '  22  " 

Gravel,  coarse,  23  " 

Marl,  28  " 

Clay,  stiff,  29  " 

Chalk,  in  lumps,  29  " 

Earth,  mould,  33  " 

The  whole  subject  is  ably  handled  by 
Trautwine,  on  "Excavation  and  Em- 
bankment." From  the  same  author  the 
following  on  Tunnel  excavation  is  adapted 
by  the  writer.  In  making  tunnels  for 
railroads  they  should,  if  possible,  be 
straight,  especially  when  there  is  but  a 
single  track,  inasmuch  as  collisions  or 
other  accidents  in  a  tunnel  would  be 
particularly  disastrous.  A  tunnel  should 
not  be  made  unless  the  depth  of  cutting 
exceeds  60  feet.  Firm  rock  of  moderate 
hardness,  and  of  a  durable  nature,  is  the 
most  favorable  material  for  a  tunnel, 
especially  if  free  from  springs  and  lying 
in  horizontal  strata.  In  soft  rock,  or 


96  THE   RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

in  shales  (even  if  hard  and  firm  at  first), 
or  in  earth,  a  lining  of  hard  brick  or 
masonry  in  cement  is  necessary.  A  tun- 
nel should  have  a  grade  or  inclination  in 
one  direction  for  ease  of  future  drainage 
and  ventilation.  No  special  arrangement 
is  necessary  for  ventilation,  either  during 
construction  or  after,  if  the  length  does 
not  exceed  1000  feet ;  but  beyond  that, 
generally  during  construction  either  shafts 
are  made,  or  air  is  forced  into  the  tunnel 
through  pipes  from  its  ends.  But  after 
the  work  is  finished  nothing  of  the  kind 
generally  is  necessary. 

SHAFTS  generally  cost  from  one  and  a 
half  to  three  times  as  much  per  cubic  yard 
as  the  main  tunnel,  owing  to  the  greater 
difficulty  of  excavating  and  removing  the 
material,  and  getting  rid  of  the  water,  all 
of  which  must  be  done  by  hoisting.  Their 
sectional  areas  commonly  vary  from 
about  40  to  100  square  feet.  In  exca- 
vating the  tunnel  itself,  a  HEADING  or 
passage-way  5  or  8  feet  high,  and  3  to  12 


COST   OF    EARTHWORK.  97 

feet  wide  is  driven  and  maintained  a  short 
distance  (10  to  100  feet  or  more),  accord- 
ing to  the  firmness  of  the  material,  in 
advance  of  the  main  work.  In  rock  the 
heading  is  just  below  the  top  of  the  tun- 
nel, so  that  the  men  can  conveniently 
drill  holes  in  its  floor  for  blasting;  but 
in  earth,  the  heading  is  driven  along  the 
bottom  of  the  tunnel,  that  being  the  most 
convenient  for  enlarging  the  aperture  to 
the  full  tunnel  size  by  undermining  the 
earth  and  letting  it  fall.  In  earth,  the  top 
and  sides  of  the  heading,  as  well  as  the 
tunnel,  must  be  carefully  prevented  from 
caving  in  before  the  lining  is  built,  and 
this  is  done  by  means  of  rows  of  vertical 
rough  timber,  props,  and  horizontal  caps 
or  overhead  pieces,  between  which  and 
the  earth  rough  boards  are  placed  to  form 
temporary  supporting  sides  and  ceiling  to 
the  excavation.  The  props  and  caps  are 
placed  first,  and  the  boards  are  then  driven 
in  between  them  and  the  earthen  sides  of 
the  excavation.  These  are  gradually  re- 
7 


98  THE    RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

moved  as  the  lining  is  carried  forward. 
THE  LINING,  when  of  brick,  is  usually 
from  2  to  3  bricks  thick  (17  to  26  inches) 
at  bottom,  and  from  1 J  to  2%  bricks  thick 
at  the  top,  and  when  of  rough  rubble 
in  cement,  about  half  again  as  thick.  It 
is  important  that  the  bricks  or  stone 
should  be  of  excellent  hard  quality,  and 
laid  in  good  cement.  The  bricks  should 
be  moulded  to  the  shape  of  the  arch.  As 
the  lining  is  finished  in  short  lengths,  and 
before  the  centres  are  removed,  any  cavi- 
ties or  voids  between  it  and  the  earth 
should  be  carefully  and  compactly  filled 
up.  Even  in  rock  if  much  fissured,  or  if 
not  of  durable  character,  as  common  slate, 
lining  is  necessary. 

THE  CROSS  SECTION  of  a  single-track 
railroad  tunnel  in  the  clear  of  everything, 
and  for  cars  of  11  feet  extreme  width, 
should  not  be  less  than  about  15  feet  wide 
by  18  feet  high ;  nor  a  double  track  one 
less  than  27  feet  wide  by  24  feet  high, 
unless  in  the  last  case  the  material  is  firm 


COST   OF    EARTHWORK.  99 

rock,  in  which  a  high  arch  is  not  neces- 
sary for  lining.  The  roof  may  then  be 
much  flatter,  so  that  a  height  of  20  feet 
will  answer.  With  cars  of  10  feet  ex- 
treme width,  the  width  of  the  tunnel  may 
be  reduced  to  25  feet ;  or  with  cars  9  feet 
wide,  to  23  feet.  The  rate  of  DAILY  PRO- 
GRESS from  each  face  of  a  tunnel  varies 
from  18  inches  to  9  feet  of  length  per  24 
hours  with  three  relays  of  workingmen. 
From  1J  to  3  feet  may  be  taken  as  an 
average.  If  the  tunnel  is  through  earth 
the  construction  of  the  lining  about  makes 
up  for  the  slower  excavation  of  one  in 
rock.  In  rock,  with  labor  at  $1.00  per 
day,  the  cost  will  usually  vary  with  the 
nature  of  the  rock  from  $2.00  to  $5.00 
per  cubic  yard  for  the  main  tunnel ;  and 
from  $3.00  to  $10.00  for  the  heading; 
while  shafts  will  average  about  50  per 
cent  more  than  heading.  As  the  sides 
and  roof  of  a  tunnel  are  very  roughly 
blasted,  the  contractor  takes  out  more 
material  than  would  be  given  him  if 


100  THE    KAILWAY   BUILDER. 

measured  in  the  clear.  Allowance  should 
be  made  him  for  this,  or  the  mode  of 
measurement  clearly  stated  in  the  specifi- 
cations. Before  commencing  a  tunnel 
trial  shafts  should  be  sunk  to  ascertain 
the  nature  of  the  material.  In  long  ones 
the  greatest  care  and  accuracy  are  neces- 
sary for  preserving  the  line  of  direction, 
so  that  the  work  from  both  ends  shall 
meet  properly  in  the  centre.  The  cost  of 
a  single  track  tunnel  will  range  from 
$30  to  $75  per  foot  of  length. 

On  the  Eeading  E.  E.,  during  its  con- 
struction, three  tunnels  were  cut  at  the 
following  cost  per  lineal  foot: — 

Black  Rock  Tunnel,  near  Manayunk,     $90. 
Flat       "  "  "     Phcenixville,  130. 

Port  Clinton     "  82. 

which  gives  an  average  cost  of  $101 
per  lineal  foot.  The  first  two  named 
are  double  track  tunnels,  and  the  latter 
a  single  track  only.  The  Flat  Eock 
tunnel  is  1932  feet  long,  worked  with  6 
shafts,  and  artificial  means  were  used  for 


Railroad  tunnel. 


COST   OF   EARTHWORK.  101 

ventilation.  During  the  construction  of 
the  Black  Rock  tunnel,  the  work  pro- 
gressed at  the  rate  of  100  feet  in  52  days, 
while  the  Port  Clinton  tunnel  was  ex- 
cavated at  the  rate  of  100  lineal  feet  in 
48  days.  It  is  well  to  avoid  a  tunnel  if 
it  can  possibly  be  done :  a  number  of 
trial  lines  should  be  run,  and  shafts 
should  be  sunk,  before  even  deciding 
upon  building  one.  Several  tunnels 
formerly  built  at  great  expense  have 
been  abandoned  within  recent  years. 
In  one  case  it  was  found  preferable  to 
build  two  bridges  and  revise  several 
miles  of  operating  railroad,  and  in  an- 
other instance  to  maintain  an  open  cut 
of  30  to  40  feet  in  depth  than  to  con- 
tinue using  the  tunnels. 


CHAPTER  IY. 

PERMANENT  WAY. 

AFTER  the  excavations  and  embank- 
ments have  been  completed,  and  before 
the  track  is  laid,  the  BALLAST  should  be 
put  on  the  grading.  It  consists  of  from 
8  to  28  inches  of  loose,  hard  material,  of 
sand,  gravel,  or  good  hard  broken  stone 
— furnace  slag  has  been  used  very  suc- 
cessfully on  some  American  railroads — 
reduced  to  such  a  size  that  any  piece  will 
go  through  a  ring  of  two  inches  diameter. 
The  quantity  required  will  depend  on  the 
nature  of  the  material  which  forms  the 
cuts  and  banks,  and  may  vary  in  depth 
from  1  to  3  feet.  Ballasting  is  necessary 
to  drain  the  road-bed  properly.  If  the 
sills  or  cross-ties  should  be  laid  directly 
on  the  grading  without  any  intermediate 
ballast,  which  unfortunately  is  often  done 
102 


PERMANENT  WAY.  103 

in  the  hurry  to  get  the  road  in  operation, 
— they  are  laid  on  soft  clay,  which  in  wet 
weather  washes  away  from  underneath 

them ;  or  else  on  solid  rock  bottom,  say 

«/ 

of  excavations,  of  that  nature  which  pre- 
sents such  a  rigid  base  as  to  destroy  the 
rails.  The  ballast  on  a  railroad  gives  the 
track  a  certain  amount  of  elasticity,  ab- 
solutely necessary  to  carry  the  train, 
which  passes  over  it,  with  any  degre  of 
safety.  Frequently  the  cross-ties  and  iron 
are  laid  on  the  sub-grade  temporarily, 
only  laying  the  iron  so  that  the  ballast 
can  be  hauled  to  the  place  required  by 
construction  trains,  and  so  save  the  ex- 
pense of  carting  the  material.  Such  cases 
are  admissible,  but  when  the  first  con- 
struction train  passes  over  the  rails  safely, 
the  temptation  to  let  a  freight,  and  then 
a  passenger  train,  over  the  line  also,  is 
very  seldom  resisted,  and  much  injury 
results  in  the  form  of  badly  bent  iron, 
occasionally  an  upset  engine,  and  some- 
times loss  of  human  life.  Too  little  atten- 


104  THE   RAILWAY    BUILDER. 

tion  is  paid  to  ballasting,  excepting  upon 
some  of  our  leading  railroads,  which 
make  it  a  prominent  feature  of  con- 
struction. 

In  nearly  every  instance  in  which  the 
rails,  frogs,  and  switches  show  unusual 
signs  of  wear,  the  cause  can  be  traced  to 
dirt,  or  often,  to  no  ballast.  The  sand 
ballast  of  the  South  makes  a  good  elastic 
road-bed.  Some  of  the  Southern  rail- 
ways have  no  other  ballast  except  pure 
clean  sand,  and  apparently  it  is  suffi- 
cient. On  the  Pennsylvania  E.  R.  the 
ballast  is  broken  stone,  sloping  from  the 
sills  to  the  sub-grade,  and  such  attention 
given  to  it  that  care  is  even  taken  to 
have  the  edges  of  the  ballast  laid  with 
a  line !  The  following  TABLE  gives  the 
number  of  cubic  yards  of  ballasting  re- 
quired for  one  mile  of  single-track  rail- 
road. Slopes  of  the  ballast  1  to  1,  the 
depth  from  12  to  30  inches,  and  the  top 
width — that  is,  the  width  of  the  road- 
bed— from  10  to  12  feet. 


PERMANENT  WAY. 


105 


Table  of  Ballasting. 


Depth  in 
inches. 

Top  width  in  feet. 

10. 

11. 

12. 

12 

18 
24 
30 

2152 
3374 
4694 
6111 

2347 
3667 
5085 
6600 

2543 
3960 

5474 
7087 

Cubic  yards. 

a           it 
«            « 

The  cost  of  breaking  stone  for  ballast, 
exclusive  of  the  cost  of  the  stone,  if  done 
by  hand,  will  be  about  $700  per  mile  of 
single  track  railroad.  The  stone  can 
generally  be  procured  from  the  excava- 
tions along  the  line  of  the  road ;  if  not,  the 
cost  will  be  about  $1500  per  mile  to  buy 
and  put  in  position.  The  hard  slag  or 
refuse,  from  blast  furnaces,  makes  an  ex- 
cellent ballast,  its  extreme  brittleness 
renders  it  easy  to  reduce  to  the  proper 
size,  and  it  does  not  crumble  to  dust  as 
softer  material  will  do ;  the  water  finds 
its  way  through  it  with  ease,  and  as  it 
never  packs  closely  against  the  CROSS- 
TIES,  the  water  will  not  decay  as 


106  THE   RAILWAY    BUILDER. 

quickly,  the  air  having  free  access  to 
the  wood. 

When  railroads  were  first  built  in  Eng- 
land, the  rails  were  firmly  bolted  to  blocks 
of  granite,  which  were  imbedded  in  the 
grading ;  this  gave  a  durable  magnificent 
road-bed,  and  one  over  which  an  engine 
could  pull  a  greater  load  than  over  our 
timber  cross-ties,  but  every  block  of  stone 
under  the  rail  had  the  same  effect  on  it 
that  an  anvil  would  have  to  a  piece  of 
iron  on  which  the  smith  is  using  a  sledge ; 
the  heavy  engines  when  running  at  any 
considerable  rate  of  speed  battered  down 
the  heads  of  the  rails,  particularly  at  the 
joints,  so  badly,  that  the  stone  had  to  be 
removed  and  timber  put  in  its  place  to 
give  an  elastic  road-bed.  STRINGERS 
placed  under  the  rails,  running  in  the  same 
direction,  their  entire  length,  were  used, 
but  not  successfully ;  the  timber  would  rot 
in  places,  and  it  was  found  very  expen- 
sive and  inconvenient  in  repairing  to  be 
obliged  to  handle  such  large  timber. 


PERMANENT   WAY.  107 

THE  CROSS-TIES  as  now  used  on  almost 
all  American  railroads,  excepting  a  few 
Southern  roads,  which  are  laid  with  the 
longitudinal  stringers,  consist  of  timbers 
laid  across  the  ballast  at  right  angles  to 
the  line  of  the  road,  and  usually  measure 
9  feet  long,  7  inches  deep,  and  8  inches 
in  width,  and  are  usually  trees  cut  down 
and  roughly  hewn  on  the  top  and  bottom 
sides.  A  good  hard  wood  is  necessary,  to 
prevent  the  rails  from  sinking  into  it. 
In  England,  the  double-headed  rail  is 
used,  that  is,  the  top  and  bottom  of  the 
rail  are  of  the  same  shape,  and  it  has  no 
flat  base  like  the  American  rail.  This  ne- 
cessitates iron  chairs  placed  on  each 
cross-tie,  in  order  to  hold  the  rail  in  posi- 
tion. In  this  country  the  base  of  the  rail 
rests  directly  on  the  cross-ties,  and  hard 
wood  is  necessary  to  prevent  the  crushing 
of  its  fibres  by  the  rail.  White  oak, 
chestnut,  locust,  and  cedar  make  good 
cross-ties ;  elm  can  be  used  if  of  good 
quality ;  whatever  timber  abounds  along 


108  THE    KAILWAY   BUILDER. 

the  line  of  the  road,  if  at  all  hard  wood, 
can  be  used  to  greater  advantage  than 
any  timber  which  has  to  be  brought  from 
a  distance.  The  seasoning  and  preparing 
of  cross-ties  for  railroads  has  received 
great  attention  from  many  eminent  En- 
gineers, and  many  attempts  have  been 
made  to  prepare  the  cross-ties  previous 
to  laying,  so  as  to  prevent  or  arrest  the 
natural  decay  of  the  wood.  Some  years 
ago  the  cross-ties  used  on  the  Phila.  and 
Beading  E.  E.  were  notched  at  the  points 
where  the  rails  crossed  them,  and  their 
ends  dipped  in  coal  tar ;  by  this  process 
it  was  supposed  it  would  preserve  the 
ends  from  decay.  Since  then  "  BURNETTIZ- 
ING"  has  been  tried  on  the  same  road,  a 
process  by  which  the  ties  were  thoroughly 
saturated  with  a  solution  of  zinc.  Neither 
of  these  gave  the  desired  result,  and  both 
have  been  abandoned.  The  cost  of  Bur- 
nettizing  a  cross-tie  was  25  cents,  equal 
to  one-half  of  its  original  cost.  SAWED 
CROSS-TIES  are  often  used,  but  only  on 
trestle  work  or  bridges,  although  the 


PERMANENT  WAY.  109 

writer  knows  of  cases  where  sawed  ties 
are  laid  the  entire  length  of  the  railroad. 
The  following  table  gives  the  NUMBER  OF 
CROSS-TIES  required  to  one  mile  of  single 
track  railroad,  laid  in  the  following  order. 

18  inches  from  centre  to  centre,  3520  ties. 
21  "  "  "          3017    " 

24  "  "  "          2640    " 

27  "  "  "          2348    " 

30  "  "  "          2113    " 

A  fair  ESTIMATE  FOR  CROSS-TIES  is  from 
40  to  50  cents  apiece,  delivered  on  the 
line  of  the  road,  or  about  $1700  per  mile 
of  single  track  road. 

The  history  of  the  rail  is  identical  with 
the  history  of  tramways.  Wooden  rails 
were  used  at  New  Castle,  in  1602. 

In  1716,  flat  pieces  of  iron  were  nailed 
to  the  wooden  rails. 

In  1776,  cast-iron  rails,  with  upright 
flange,  were  laid  on  wooden  sleepers. 

In  1789,  Loughborough's  cast-iron  edge 
rail,  with  flanges  on  the  wagon  wheels. 

In  1793,  stone  bearings  were  substi- 
tuted for  wooden  sleepers. 


110  THE   RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

Wrought- iron  bars  two  or  three  inches 
in  thickness,  spiked  to  longitudinal  sleep- 
ers, were  then  used  in  connection  with 
flanged  wheels. 

Wyatt's  cast  edge  rail,  leaving  an  oval 
section,  was  then  used  in  connection  with 
grooved  wheels  in  1800. 

Jessopused  this  rail  in  1789,  and  added 
the  chair — a  block  of  iron — slotted  to  re- 
ceive the  ends  of  adjacent  rails.  The 
wheel  had  a  tread  of  2|  inches,  and  a 
flange  to  keep  it  on  the  rail ;  the  sleepers 
were  of  wood. 

1803.  Woodhouse's  hollow  rail,  with  a 
channel  for  the  rounded  edge  of  the  wheel. 

1805.  The  fish-bellied  rail  at  Penrhyn. 

1810.  A  square-bodied  cast  rail. 

1811.  Blenkinsop's  rock  rail. 

1816.  Gosh  and  Stephenson's  flanged 
rail,  which  was  a  lapping  continuous  rail. 

1817.  Hawk's    cast-iron    face    on    a 
wrought-iron  base. 

1820.  Birkenshaw's,  of  Bedlington, 
Durham,  wrought-iron  face  on  a  cast-iron 


PERMANENT  WAY.  Ill 

base ;  lie  also  invented  the  rolled  rail,  the 
iron,  while  hot,  being  passed  between 
grooved  rollers  of  the  required  pattern. 
This  rail,  with  many  modifications,  is  now 
used  on  the  different  railroads  in  this 
country. 

As  before  stated,  some  few  Southern 
roads  in  this  country  are  using  the  old 
STRAP  RAIL,  a  flat  bar  of  wrought  iron 
resting  in  its  entire  length  on  wooden 
stringers,  but  they  are  only  so  used  for 
light  logging  roads  in  the  lumbering 
districts,  and  would  not  be  suitable  for 
use  with  our  modern  rolling  stock.  In 
the  olden  times  this  was  the  rail  in  gen- 
eral use  in  America,  and  many  accidents 
occurred  by  reason  of  the  ends  of  the 
rails  curling  up  and  forming  "  snake 
ends;"  these  would  become  detached 
from  the  wooden  stringers,  and  some- 
times would  pierce  the  floors  of  the 
cars,  injuring  and  maiming  the  pas- 
sengers. The  English  DOUBLE-HEADED 
RAIL  is  supposed  to  possess  an  advan- 


112  THE   RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

tage  over  the  American  rail,  from  the 
fact  that  when  one  head  is  worn  out  it 
can  be  reversed,  and  the  wheels  can  be 
equally  accommodated  by  the  other  head. 
If  such  were  really  the  case,  its  superior- 
ity would  be  unquestioned,  but  in  actual 
practice  it  appears  that,  by  the  time  one 
head  is  worn  out,  the  other  has  received 
such  injuries  from  hammering  away  in 
the  iron  chairs,  that  notches  are  found  in 
the  rail  at  such  points  as  to  render  the 
surface  unfit  for  the  wheel  to  run  on,  and 
also  to  seriously  injure  the  strength  of  the 
rail,  and  again,  in  many  of  the  sections 
of  English  rails  the  form  of  the  two  heads 
is  not  alike,  so  this  idea  of  reversing  the 
rail  does  not  seem  to  be  of  much  impor- 
tance. The  STEEL-TOP  RAIL,  MITRE-JOINT 

RAIL,  COMBINATION  RAIL,  all  possess  some 
merit,  but  their  use  has  been  extremely 
limited,  and  the  writer  deems  it  unneces- 
sary to  go  into  details  respecting  them. 
The  BESSEMER  STEEL  RAIL,  made  by  the 
Bessemer  process,  is  now  the  standard 


PERMANENT   WAY.  113 

rail,  and  as  long  as  it  can  be  purchased 
at  its  present  low  price,  its  advantages 
over  the  iron  rail  seem  to  admit  of  no 
argument.  In  fact  the  superiority  of 
steel  over  iron  rails  is  now  no  longer  dis- 
puted ;  they  are  not  only  more  durable, 
but  are  much  stronger  for  the  same 
amount  of  material,  their  comparative 
strength  being  in  the  same  proportion  as 
5  to  3.  Steel  rails  are  less  fibrous  than 
iron,  and  consequently  less  liable  to  splin- 
ter off  from  use.  By  actual  test,  one  steel 
rail  has  outworn  17  iron  rails,  with  only 
Tsg  of  an  inch  worn  off  the  top.  Great 
care  is  necessary  in  selecting  irons  for  the 
Bessemer  process;  only  those  containing 
very  little  sulphur  and  phosphorus  can 
be  used,  the  former  causing  red -shortness, 
and  the  latter  cold-shortness,  or  brittle- 
ness.  At  the  furnace  of  the  Penna.  Steel 
Works,  a  very  superior  iron  is  made 
which  they  themselves  use  in  making 
steel  rails.  The  ores  used  are  chiefly 
magnetic,  from  Dillsburg,  York  County. 


116  THE    RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

degree  of  hardness ;  this  addition  of  speigel 
to  the  metal  produces  a  violent  action, 
which  soon  ceases,  and  the  steel  is  then 
poured  into  a  ladle,  from  which  it  is  sub- 
sequently run  into  cast-iron  moulds.  A 
small  test-ingot  is  taken  from  each  charge, 
and  chemically  tested.  The  capacity  of 
a  Bessemer  plant  is  from  25  to  30  blows 
per  day.  From  the  moulds  the  steel 
ingot  is  taken  to  the  blooming  mill,  and 
the  ingots  are  reheated  and  rolled  into 
blooms,  which  are  in  turn  heated  again, 
and  then  rolled  into  rails.  Great  care  is 
necessary  in  manufacturing  steel  rails  to 
avoid  brittleness,  and  to  insure  toughness. 
When  steel  rails  were  first  manufactured, 
there  was  an  uncertainty  in  the  quality 
of  the  material  which  raised  quite  a  pre- 
judice in  the  minds  of  many  Engineers 
against  their  use,  but  the  process  of 
manufacture  has  now  been  brought  to 
such  a  high  state  of  perfection  that  this 
doubt  no  longer  exists,  and  where  the 
traffic  of  the  line  will  permit  they  are 


PERMANENT   WAY.  117 

generally  adopted.  The  cost  of  steel 
rails  at  the  present  writing  (1897)  is 
about  $20  per  ton  at  the  mills,  or  about 
$1880  per  mile  of  sixty-pound  steel. 

The  first  steel  rail  was  made  in  1857,  by 
Mushet,  at  the  Ebbow- Yale  Iron  Company 
Works,  in  South  Wales.  It  was  rolled 
from  cast  blooms  of  Bessemer  steel,  and 
laid  down  at  Derby,  England,  and  re- 
mained sixteen  years,  during  which  time 
250  trains,  and  at  least  250  detached  en- 
gines and  tenders  passed  over  it  daily. 
Taking  312  working  days  in  each  year, 
we  have  the  total  of  1,252,000  trains,  and 
1,252,000  detached  engines  and  tenders, 
which  passed  over  it  from  the  time  it  was 
first  laid  before  it  was  removed  to  be 
worked  over.  Two  steel  rails  of  21  feet 
in  length  were  laid  on  the  2d  of  May, 
1862,  at  the  Chalk  Farm  Bridge,  side  by 
side  with  two  ordinary  iron  rails.  After 
having  outlasted  16  faces  of  the  ordinary 
rails,  the  steel  ones  were  taken  up  and 
examined,  and  it  was  found  that  at  the 
expiration  of  three  years  and  three  months 


118  THE    RAILWAY    BUILDER. 

the  surface  was  evenly  worn  to  the  extent 
of  only  J  of  an  inch,  and  to  all  appear- 
ance they  were  capable  of  enduring  a  good 
deal  more  work.  These  two  rails,  during 
a  period  of  little  more  than  three  years, 
had  been  exposed  to  a  traffic  of  9,550,000 
engines,  trucks,  and  carriages,  and 
95,577,240  tons,  an  amount  of  traffic 
equal  to  nearly  ten  times  that  which  de- 
stroyed the  Great  Northern  iron  rails  in 
three  years'  time. 

In  England  rails  are  rolled  from  15  to 
21  feet  long,  the  latter  being  the  most 
common  size.  In  this  country  it  is  not 
an  uncommon  feat  to  roll  a  perfect  rail 
60  feet  in  length,  weighing  60  to  90  pounds 
to  the  yard.  A  rail  is  generally  from  3 
to  4J  inches  high  (usually  4J  inches), 
and  the  width  from  2  J  to  3  inches  at  the 
head,  3  to  5  inches  on  the  flange,  and 
having  a  web  or  neck  of  J  to  1  inch  in 
thickness.  The  life  of  iron  rails  of  best 
quality  has  been  found  to  be  35,000,000 
tons  over  a  double  line,  or  17,500,000 
tons  over  each  single  rail,  and  many  from 


PERMANENT   WAY. 


119 


the  best  makers  stand  only  5,500,000  to 
15,000,000  tons,  or  equal  to  100,000  trains 
of  150  tons  each,  independently  of  the 
length  of  time  of  the  traffic.  The  wear 
may  be  estimated  as  the  Tu  Q^^th  part  of 
the  value  of  the  rail  each  time  a  train 
goes  over  it ;  and  if  the  value  of  a  mile 
of  iron  be  taken  at  $5000,  the  wear  would 
be  5  cents  per  train  per  mile. 

A  great  many  American  railroads  are 
using  a  rail  of  the  average  section  of  60 
pounds  per  yard,  some  as  high  as  90. 

Table  giving  the  Number  of  Tons  of  Rails 
required  to  Lay  One  Mile  of  Single 
Track  Railroad  of  different  Weights  of 
Rails,  of  Steel  or  Iron. 


Weight 

of  rail 

p'r  yard. 


Tons 
per 
mile. 


81bs. 
12 
16 
25 
30 
35 
40 


Weight 

of  rail 

p'r  yard. 


55 


45 

50 
52 
56 
57 
60 
62 


Tons 

per 

mile. 


Weight 
of  rail 


120  THE    KAILWAY    BUILDER. 

AN  IRON  RAIL  is  made  by  rolling  together 
a  number  of  separate  pieces  of  iron  which 
when  placed  in  position  preparatory  to 
rolling,  are  called  "  RAIL  PILES."  These 
rail  piles  are  formed  in  different  ways  ac- 
cording to  the  ideas  of  the  manufacturer. 
The  pile  is  first  treated  in  a  furnace  to  a 
welding  heat,  and  hammered  #or  rolled 
into  a  solid  lump  or  bloom,  which  is  again 
heated  and  rolled  into  the  desired  shape 
of  rails.  Formerly  a  very  important 
fact  to  consider  in  deciding  between 
iron  and  steel  was,  that  after  an  iron 
rail  became  worn  out  and  no  longer 
fit  for  railroad  service,  it  was  still  a 
marketable  article,  and  could  readily 
be  disposed  of  as  old  iron,  at  at  least 
two-thirds  of  its  original  cost,  but  what 
old  steel  rails  were  worth  was  a  com- 
paratively unknown  quantity.  This  is 
no  longer  a  consideration.  Recent  im- 
provements in  the  melting  of  old  steel 
have  made  that  article  a  valuable  asset, 
and  old  steel  rails  can  readily  be  ex- 


PERMANENT   WAY. 


121 


changed  for  new,  plus  a  comparatively 
small  cost  for  rerolling. 

The  following  Table  gives  the  Average 
Price,  per  Ton,  of  Iron  and  Steel  Rails, 
New  York,  during  the  past  Fifty  Years. 


Year. 

Iron. 

Steel. 

Year. 

Iron. 

Steel. 

1847 

$70 

1872 

$90 

$110 

1848 

60 

1873 

85 

120 

1849 

50 

1874 

65 

75 

1850 

45 

1875 

50 

70 

1851 

45 

1876 

45 

60 

1852 

45 

1877 

40 

50 

1853 

75 

1878 

35 

40 

1854 

80 

1879 

40 

48 

1855 

60 

1880 

50 

68 

1856 

60 

1881 

47 

60 

1857 

65 

1882 

45 

48 

1858 

50 

1883 

40 

37 

1859 

50 

1884 

30 

1860 

45 

1885 

28 

1861 

40 

1886 

34 

1862 

36 

1887 

37 

1863 

70 

1888 

35 

1864 

153 

1889 

30 

1865 

84 

1890 

32 

1866 

80 

1891 

30 

1867 

80 

1892 

30 

1868 

78 

$175 

1893 

80 

1869 

75 

150 

1894 

28 

1870 

75 

130 

1895 

28 

1871 

70 

95 

1896 

28 

122  THE   RAILWAY   BUILDER. 


STEEL  RAILS  are  worth  only  $20 
per  ton  (the  price  recently  fixed  for 
1897),  and  this  low  price,  together  with 
their  acknowledged  superiority  over 
iron  rails,  has  practically  driven  the  lat- 
ter out  of  the  market.  Nearly  90  per 
cent,  of  the  track  of  all  railways  in 
this  country  is  now  of  steel.  It  is  not 
always  best  to  buy  a  heavy  rail  ;  very 
often  a  lighter  rail  will  do  as  much  ser- 
vice for  the  amount  of  traffic,  making 
quite  a  saving  in  the  cost.  A  rail  will 
usually  wear  out  first  at  the  ends,  owing 
to  the  wheels  hammering  over  the  open 
joints,  which  are  caused  by  the  rails  con- 
tracting and  expanding  at  the  different 
degrees  of  temperature.  Many  devices 
have  been  invented  to  overcome  THE  OPEN 
JOINT,  but  for  all  practical  purposes  they 
have  not  been  successful;  the  joint  still 
exists,  and  is  a  constant  source  of  annoy- 
ance and  expense  ;  the  only  thing  to  be 
done  is  to  make  that  joint  as  secure  as 
possible  by  using  good  fastenings,  and 


PERMANENT   WAY. 


123 


when  laying  track  to  make  allowances  for 
the  contraction  and  expansion  of  the  rails. 

Table  giving  the  Number  of  Rails  and 
Joints  per  Mile  of  Single  Track  Rail- 
road, for  Rails  of  different  Lengths. 


Rails  24'  long  each. 


"  25 

"  26 

"  27 

"  28 

"  30 


440  complete  joints  and  rails. 


422 
406 
391 
377 
352 


In  order  to  fasten  two  rails  together  at 
their  ends,  some  fastening  or  other  cou- 
pling must  be  used.  Time  and  space  will 
not  permit  even  mention  by  the  writer  of 
the  hundreds  of  devices  presented  to  his 
notice  for  effecting  this  object,  very  many 
having  claims  to  originality  of  design,  but 
very  little  else.  On  the  many  miles  of 
railroad  now  operating  in  this  country, 
but  very  little  difference  will  be  observed 
in  the  manner  of  fastening  or  "FISHING" 
the  rails ;  and  the  general  tendency  ap- 
pears to  be  towards  the  adoption  as  a 


124 


PERMANENT   WAY.  125 

STANDARD  JOINT  of  two  iron  bars,  one 
on  each  side  of  the  rails  and  bolted 
through.  These  bars  are  made  in  many 
different  shapes  and  sizes,  but  generally 
speaking  are  much  alike,  simply  two  bars 
or  plates  ranging  from  18  to  24  inches 
in  length,  and  having  holes  punched  in 
them  for  the  bolts  to  go  through,  these 
holes  corresponding  in  size  and  position  to 
the  holes  in  the  rails.  When  the  joints 
happen  so  that  a  cross-tie  is  immediately 
under  it,  then  it  is  called  a  "  SUPPORTED 
JOINT,"  but  when  the  cross- ties  come  on 
each  side  of  the  joint,  it  is  called  a  "SUS- 
PENDED JOINT."  The  latter  is  undoubtedly 
the  best,  possessing  greater  elasticity  and 
preserving  the  life  of  the  rail  by  relieving 
the  anvil  pounding  it  would  receive  if  too 
rigidly  supported.  FISH  PLATES  are 
usually  quoted  by  the  pound  or  per  joint 
of  two  bars.  The  price  per  pound  is  about 
two  cents,  and  per  joint,  the  price  will 
vary  according  to  the  weight  and  size  of 
the  bar.  The  following  table  has  been 


126 


PERMANENT    WAY. 


127 


prepared  for  the  different  sizes,  weights, 
and  present  prices  per  pound  and  joint 
for 

Plain  Fish  Bars. 

(Original.) 


Weight 
rail. 

Length 
plate. 

Weight 
of 
plates. 

Price 
per 
pound. 

Price 
of 
plate. 

Joint 
with 
bolts. 

30  Ibs. 

16i  n. 

6£  Ibs. 

2  cts. 

13  cts. 

36  cts. 

40 

22 

13 

2 

26 

62  " 

50 

22 

13 

2 

26 

62  " 

56 

23 

16 

2 

32 

75  " 

60 

23 

16 

2 

32 

75  " 

67 

24 

18 

2 

36 

87  " 

90 

34 

30 

2 

60 

1.35  » 

To  connect  the  fish  bars  with  the  rails, 
4  BOLTS  are  used  (excepting  the  34-inch 
plates,  where  6  bolts  are  used),  two  in  the 
ends  of  each  rail ;  these  bolts  measure  j 
of  an  inch  in  thickness,  and  are  of  vari- 
ous lengths,  usually,  however,  4f  inches 
long.  The  heads  of  the  bolts  are  made 
square,  oblong,  or  with  round-button 
heads,  the  latter  being  the  most  com- 
mon. The  holes  in  one  fish  plate  are 
made  oval  to  fit  an  oval-headed  bolt, 
and  prevent  it  from  turning  round. 


128 


PERMANENT   WAY. 


129 


The  nuts  are  made  square,  or  hexag- 
onal. Bolts  and  nuts  are  usually  quoted 
by  the  pound ;  a  bolt  and  nut  together 
will  weigh  about  one  pound.  The  price 
of  Fish  bolts  and  nuts  is  about  3J  cents 
per  pound,  bolt  and  nut  together. 

Table  of  the  Number  of  Fish  Plates  and 
Bolts  required  for  One  Mile  of  Single 
Track  Railroad. 

(Original.) 


Length  of 
rail. 

No.  of 
plates. 

No.  of 
bolts. 

No.  of 
joints. 

Price  per 
mile  for 
complete 
joints. 

24  feet. 

25       ' 
26       ' 
27       ' 
28      ' 
30      ' 

880 
844 
812 
782 
754 
704 

1760 
1688 
1624 
1564 
1508 
1408 

Complete. 

440 
422 
406 
391 
377 
352 

Rail  60  Ibs. 
$330.00 
316.50 
304.50 
293.25 
282.75 
264.10 

The  customary  lengths  of  rails  are 
seldom  under  30  feet.  The  cost,  there- 
fore, of  Fish  plates  and  bolts  for  one  mile 
of  single  track  railroad,  will  be  about 
$264,  as  shown  by  the  preceding  tables. 
9 


SQUARE NUT 
l&Utx  1 32. IN. 
THICK. 


130 


PERMANENT   WAY. 


131 


The  following  tables  contain  all  neces- 
sary information  regarding  bolts  and 
nuts,  viz. : 


Number  to  One  Hundred  Pounds. 


Square.  Hexagon. 

inch,  1100    1250 

"    550     650 

"    375    415 

"    230    155 


Square.  Hexagon. 
1  inch,  150     170 
1|  "     98     110 
If  "     70     80 
1  "    45     55 


Weight  of  Nuts  and  Bolt  Heads  in  Ibs. 


Diameter  of  bolt 

in  inches, 

* 

I 

i 

I 

f 

1 

Weight  of  hexa- 

gon nut  &  head 

.117 

.057 

.128 

.267 

.43 

.73 

Weight  of  square 

nut  and  head 

.021 

.069 

.164 

.320 

.55 

.88 

Diameter  of  bolt 

in  inches 

1 

1J 

H 

H 

2 

2* 

3 

Weight  of  hexa- 

gon nut  &  head 

1.10 

2.14 

3.78 

5.6 

8.75 

17 

28.8 

Weight  of  square 

nut  and  head 

1.31 

2.56 

4.42 

7.0 

10.5 

21 

36.4 

132 


THE    RAILWAY    BUILDER. 


Standard  for  Screw-threads,  Bolt-heads, 
and  Nuts. 

Adopted  by  the  Master  Car-Builders'  Association. 


3 


S* 

2 


f 


H 7 

11 7 

fclS 

if:::::::::? 

11 5 

2  41 


41 2f 


The  distance  between  the  parallel  sides  of  a  bolt- 
head  and  nut  for  a  rough  bolt  shall  be  equal  to  one 
and  a  half  diameter  of  the  bolt,  plus  one-eighth  of 
an  inch. 

The  thickness  of  the  heads  for  rough  bolts  shall 
be  equal  to  one-half  of  the  distance  between  their 
parallel  sides. 

The  thickness  of  the  nut  shall  be  equal  to  the 
diameter  of  the  bolt. 

The  thickness  of  the  head  for  a  finished  bolt  shall 
be  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  nut. 


I  •-»  1    •      — r— 

*\-rt2k3* 

v-**l-f  ift 


in 


S  IN  cnts. —..—  -• aj 

IN   — C—   iJlN^.-rf^l^hi jj 

<fcfe_l 

uy  inr8^? 

my 


-_.. _.i,N — ^ 


133 


134  THE   RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

The  distance  between  the  parallel  sides  of  a  bolt- 
head  and  nut  and  the  thickness  of  the  nut  shall  be 
one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  less  for  finished  work  than 
for  rough. 

Now,  although  the  fish  plates  and  bolts 
properly  secured  to  the  rails  will  con- 
nect them  together  lengthways,  some- 
thing is  necessary  to  prevent  them  from 
moving  sideways ;  this  is  done  by  using 
"  HOOK-HEADED"  SPIKES,  which  are  driven 
into  the  sills  or  cross-ties  close  to  the 
flange  of  the  rail  until  their  hooked 
heads,  projecting  over  the  flanges,  will 
hold  the  rail  firmly  in  position.  SPIKES 
are  of  various  sizes,  styles,  and  dimen- 
sions, but  it  has  been  found  from  prac- 
tice and  repeated  experiments  that  the 
plain  square  spike,  5^-"  X  -fa",  pointed 
like  a  wedge  (say  double  the  thick- 
ness of  the  spike),  and  driven  squarely 
across  the  grain  of  the  wood,  is  better 
than  any  of  the  numerous  "  ragged"  or 
"  spiral"  devices.  The  STANDARD  SPIKE 
for  a  broad-gauge  (4'  8J")  railroad 


Standard  railway  spike 

(6i"  X  A")- 


136 


136 


THE   RAILWAY    BUILDER. 


should  measure  5J  inches  from  the  tip 
of  the  point  to  the  under  side  of  the 
head,  and  should  be  -f$  of  an  inch  square 
in  thickness.  FOR  NARROW-GAUGE  (3  ft.) 
railroads,  4J  inches  by  -fa  of  an  inch  will 
do  very  well,  and  should  be  well  driven, 
four  to  each  cross-tie.  Spikes  are  quoted 
by  the  pound,  the  present  price  being 
about  2J  cents  per  pound;  they  are 
packed  in  kegs  of  150  pounds  each. 

Railroad  Spikes. 


Ties  two  feet 

Size, 
measured 

Average 
No.  per  keg 

between 
centres,  four 

Rail  used, 
Weight  per 

under  head. 

of  150  Ibs. 

spikes  per  tie, 

yard. 

makes  per 

mile. 

Inches. 

Pounds.  Kegs. 

280 

5670=38 

45  to  70 

52  x  y9^ 

300 

5170=35 

40  to  56 

5    x£ 

340 

4660=31 

35  to  40 

41x4 

400 

3960=27 

30  to  35 

4   xl 

450 

3520=24 

28  to  35 

fx& 

510 
540 

3110=21    \ 
2940=20    J 

25  to  30 

42xfr 

675 
760 

2350=18    I 
2090=14    J 

20  to  25 

31  x  | 

890 

1780=12    ) 

16  to  20 

3    xf 

930 

1710-lHf 

PERMANENT    WAY.  137 

The  foregoing  TABLE  gives  the  num- 
ber of  spikes  to  a  keg,  and  the  num- 
ber of  pounds  and  kegs  to  the  mile, 
for  different  sizes;  from  which  we  as- 
certain that  a  mile  of  single  track  rail- 
road will  require  (using  the  average 
weight  of  rail,  60  pounds)  38  kegs,  or 
5670  pounds  of  5J"  X  -f$"  spikes,  costing 
$141.75.  The  smaller  spikes  are  some- 
what more  expensive  than  the  larger 
ones,  by  about  J  cent  per  pound.  A 
very  important  feature  in  the  construc- 
tion of  a  railroad  is  involved  in  TRACK- 
LAYING,  and  when  any  trouble  occurs 
with  the  joints  and  fastenings  it  can 
generally  be  traced  to  poor  or  insuffi- 
cient ballasting.  The  following  con- 
tract for  track-laying  is  expressed  in 
the  usual  form  of  such  agreements. 

Contract  for  Track-laying. 
Articles  of  Agreement,  made  and  con- 
cluded this day  of 18 — ,  by  and 

between of  the  first  part  and  the 


138 


PERMANENT   WAY.  139 

Kailroad   Company   of  the   second 

part. 

WITNESSETH:  That  for,  and  in  con- 
sideration of  the  payments  and  covenants, 
hereinafter  mentioned,  to  be  made  and 
performed  by  the  said  party  of  the  second 
part,  the  said  party  of  the  first  part  doth 
hereby  covenant  and  agree  to  do  all  the 
Track -lay  ing  and  Back-filling  of  the  main 
track  and  sidings  of  the  said  -  —  Kail- 
road  Company,  from  -  -  to  -  -in 
accordance  with  the  following  specifica- 
tions ;  and  in  conformity  with  the  direc- 
tions of  the  Engineer  in  charge,  and  to 
his  satisfaction  and  acceptance;  and  to 

complete  the  same  on  or  before  the 

day  of  -     -  18—. 

SPECIFICATIONS. 

The  ties  shall  be  laid  accurately  to  the 
stakes  as  given  by  the  Engineer  in  charge ; 
they  shall  be  carefully  mauled  down  on, 
or  into,  the  ballast,  to  such  depths  as  the 
Engineer  may  direct,  and  in  such  a  man- 


140  THE   RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

ner  as  to  give  them  a  firm,  continuous, 
and  even  bearing  thereon.  Care  snail 
be  taken  that  all  ties  with  rind  be  so 
adzed  off  as  to  present  even  and  parallel 
bear  ing- surfaces  for  the  rails  to  rest  on. 
The  ties  shall  generally  be  laid  at  the  rate 
of  twenty -six  hundred  and  fifty  to  the 
mile,  but  the  Engineer  may  increase  or 
diminish  the  number  at  such  points  as  he 
may  consider  necessary.  Particular  at- 
tention must  be  given  to  the  ties  imme- 
diately next  the  joints,  that  they  be 
firmly  bedded  into,  and  have  a  continuous 
bearing  upon  the  ballast,  the  largest  being 
selected  for  this  purpose.  The  rails  shall 
be  accurately  laid  to  the  line,  and  level- 
stakes  given  by  the  Engineer  or  his 
Assistants,  and  on  all  curves  they  must 
be  bent  to  the  proper  curvature  before 
being  laid  on  the  ties ;  they  shall  be  laid 
to  a  gauge  of-  — ,  and  so  as  to  break 
joints.  Care  shall  be  taken  that  the  pro- 
per space  be  allowed  between  the  ends  of 
the  rails  to  provide  for  expansion,  and, 


PERMANENT   WAY.  141 

on  curves,  that  the  proper  elevation,  as 
fixed  by  the  Engineer,  be  given  to  the 
outside  rail.  Each  rail  shall  be  securely 
spiked  by  two  spikes,  one  on  each  side, 
to  each  tie ;  the  spikes  shall  be  well  driven 
home,  so  as  to  bring  the  rails  firmly  down 
upon  the  ties ;  a  greater  or  less  number 
of  spikes  shall  be  used  where  the  Engi- 
neer may  require  it.  On  Bridges  the 
rails  shall  be  spiked  down  upon  the 
Track -stringers  so  as  to  give  them  a  con- 
tinuous bearing  along  their  entire  length, 
with  such  a  number  of  spikes  as  the  En- 
gineer may  direct. 

The  Sidings  shall  be  laid  at  such  points 
and  of  such  lengths  as  the  Engineer  may 
direct,  and  of  either  new  or  old  rails  as 
he  may  deem  expedient.  In  putting  in 
the  Switches  and  Frogs,  care  shall  be 
taken  to  put  them  accurately  to  the  posi- 
tion as  determined  by  the  Engineer ;  they 
must  be  laid  upon  ties  specially  provided 
for  that  purpose,  which  shall  be  so  laid 
as  to  have  a  firm  and  continuous  bearing 


142  THE   RAILWAY    BUILDER. 

upon  the  ballast.  Each  Frog  shall  be 
accurately  laid  with  a  uniform  bearing 
upon  four  ties.  All  the  backfilling  that 
may  be  required  shall  be  furnished  by 
party  of  the  first  part,  and  shall  consist 
of  stone,  furnace  cinder,  or  gravel,  of  a 
size  to  pass  through  a  ring  of  three  inches 
diameter.  After  the  track  is  firmly  and 
accurately  laid,  it  shall  be  properly  sur- 
faced, tamped,  and  lined  up ;  and  the 
spaces  between  the  ties  shall  be  filled 
with  good  broken  stone  or  cinder  as  above 
specified  (and  as  directed  by  the  Engineer, 
not  exceeding  four  hundred  cubic  yards 
to  the  mile)  to  the  top  and  for  the  whole 
length  of  the  ties.  All  material  that  shall 
have  been  thrown  into  the  ditches,  by  the 
party  of  the  first  part,  shall  be  removed 
therefrom,  and  the  road  properly  ditched 
and  cleaned  up. 

The  party  of  the  first  part  shall  main- 
tain and  keep  the  track  in  good  repair 
until  the  same  is  accepted  by  the  Engi- 
neer; and  no  length  of  track  shall  be 


PERMANENT   WAY.  143 

accepted  and  taken  off  the  hands  of  the 
party  of  the  first  part,  except  at  the  option 
of  the  Engineer,  until  the  whole  shall 
have  been  completed. 

And,  the  party  of  the  first  part  doth 
further  agree  to  load  upon  cars,  to  be 
furnished  by  the  party  of  the  second  part, 
and  transport  all  iron,  chains,  spikes,  ties, 
and  other  material  that  may  be  required 
for  said  track -laying  from  such  points 
along  line  of  said  railway  at  which  they 
may  be  piled,  and  to  unload  the  same  from 
said  cars  at  the  nearest  accessible  point 
to  the  place  where  the  track-laying  is  in 
progress ;  said  loading,  transporting,  and 
unloading  to  be  done  promptly  by  the 
party  of  the  first  part  and  at  his  own  ex- 
pense. The  party  of  the  first  part  will 
be  required  to  insert  such  small  open- 
plank  cross- drains  under  the  railroad  or 
crossing  roads,  or  at  such  other  points  as 
the  Engineer  may  direct;  said  drains  to 
be  paid  for  by  the  party  of  the  second 
part  at  the  valuation  of  the  Engineer. 


144  THE   RAILWAY    BUILDER. 

All  the  work  that  may  be  required  to 
complete  the  track  ready  for  the  running 
of  trains  shall  be  done  by  the  party  of 
the  first  part,  if  required  by  the  Engineer, 
and  be  paid  for  by  the  party  of  the 
second  part  at  the  valuation  of  the  Engi- 
neer; but  no  work  shall  be  done  except 
upon  the  orders  or  instructions  of  the 
Engineer,  and  no  claims  for  extra  work 
will  be  allowed,  unless  said  work  was 
done  under  the  orders  of  the  Engineer, 
and  the  claim  presented  on  or  before  the 
first  day  of  the  month  next  after  such 
work  was  done.  No  extra  allowance  will 
be  made  for  any  delays  that  may  occur 
in  the  construction  of  the  work,  but  it 
may  entitle  the  party  of  the  first  part  to 
an  extension  of  time  for  completing  the 
work  sufficient  to  compensate  for  the 
detention  ;  to  be  determined  by  the  Engi- 
neer. And  the  said  party  of  the  second 
part  doth  further  agree  and  promise  to 
pay  to  the  said  party  of  the  first  part  for 
completing  this  contract  as  follows,  viz. : — 


PERMANENT   WAY.  145 

For  each  and  every  mile  of  main  track 
and  siding, dollars. 

For  each  and  every  cubic  yard  of  back- 
filling,   dollars. 

For  each  and  every  Frog  and  Switch 
that  may  be  set  complete, dollars. 

On  or  about  the  last  day  of  every 
month,  during  the  progress  of  the  work, 
an  estimate  shall  be  made  of  the  relative 
value  of  the  work,  to  be  judged  by  the 
Engineer,  and  upon  his  certificate  of  the 
amount  being  presented  to  the  said  party 
of  the  second  part,  or  such  disbursing 

agent  as  they  may  appoint, of  the 

amount  of  said  estimate  shall  be  paid,  in 
current  funds,  to  the  party  of  the  first 
part  between  the  tenth  and  twentieth  of 
the  ensuing  month.  And  when  all  the 
work  embraced  in  this  Contract  is  com- 
pleted in  accordance  with  the  specifica- 
tions, and  to  the  satisfaction  and  accep- 
tance of  the  Engineer,  there  shall  be 
a  final  Estimate  made  of  the  quality, 
character,  and  value  of  said  work  agree- 
10 


146  THE   RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

ably  to  the  terms  of  this  agreement,  when 
the  balance  appearing  due  to  the  said 
party  of  the  first  part  shall  be  paid  to 

or ,  giving  release  under  the  seal 

of  the  said  -  -  Eailroad  Company  from 
all  claims  or  demands  whatsoever  growing 
in  any  manner  out  of  this  agreement. 

IT  is  FURTHER  covenanted  and  agreed 
between  the  said  parties,  that  the  said 
party  of  the  first  part  shall  not  let  or 
transfer  this  contract,  or  any  part  thereof, 
to  any  other  person  without  the  written 
consent  of  the  party  of  the  second  part, 

but  shall  give personal  attention  and 

superintendence  to  the  work.  And  it  is 
further  understood  that  the  Engineer 
shall  have  the  right  to  regulate,  from 
time  to  time,  the  wages  of  labor  upon  the 
line  of  the  work  so  as  to  maintain  a  pro- 
per distribution  of  the  force,  and  prevent 
the  injurious  effects  of  competition  among 
the  contractors  for  hands. 

IT  is  FURTHER  agreed  and  understood 
that  the  work  embraced  in  this  contract 


PERMANENT   WAY.  147 

shall  be  commenced  on  or  about  the  — 

day  of ,  18 — ,  and  prosecuted  with 

such  force  as  the  Engineer  shall  deem 
adequate  to  its  completion  within  the  time 
specified ;  and  if  at  any  time  the  said 
party  of  the  first  part  shall  refuse  or  neg- 
lect to  prosecute  the  work  with  sufficient 
force,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Engineer,  for 
its  completion  within  the  time  specified 
in  this  agreement,  then  in  that  case  the 
Engineer,  or  such  agent  as  he  may  appoint, 
may  proceed  to  employ  such  a  number 
of  workmen,  laborers,  and  overseers  as 
may,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Engineer,  be 
necessary  to  insure  the  completion  of  the 
work  within  the  time  hereinbefore  speci- 
fied, at  such  wages  as  he  may  find  it  ex- 
pedient or  necessary  to  give,  pay  all  per- 
sons so  employed,  and  charge  over  the 
amount  so  paid  to  the  party  of  the  first 
part  as  for  so  much  money  paid  to  said 
party  of  the  first  part  in  this  contract ;  or 
said  Engineer  may  at  his  discretion,  for 
failure  to  prosecute  the  work  with  an 


148  THE   RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

adequate  force,  for  non-compliance  with 
his  directions  in  regard  to  the  manner  of 
completing  it,  or  for  any  other  omission 
or  neglect  of  the  requirements  of  this 
agreement  and  specifications  on  the  part 
of  the  party  of  the  first  part,  declare  this 
contract  or  any  portion  of  it  forfeited; 
which  declaration  and  forfeiture  shall  ex- 
onerate the  said  party  of  the  second  part 
from  any  and  all  obligations  and  liabilities 
arising  under  this  Contract,  the  same  as 
if  this  agreement  had  never  been  made ; 
and  the  reserved  percentage  of  -  —  upon 
any  work  done  by  the  party  of  the  first 
part  may  be  retained  forever  by  the  party 
of  the  second  part;  and  it  is  mutually 
agreed  and  distinctly  understood  that  the 
decision  of  the  Chief  Engineer  of  the  said 

Eailroad  Company  shall  be  final  and 

conclusive,  in  any  dispute  which  may 
arise  between  the  parties  to  this  agree- 
ment, relative  to  or  touching  the  same, 

and said  party  of  the  first  part  doth 

hereby  waive  any  right  of  action,  suit  or 


PERMANENT   WAY.  149 

suits,  or  other  remedy  at  law  or  other- 
wise, by  virtue  of  said  covenant,  so  that 
the  decision  of  the  said  Engineer  shall, 
in  the  nature  of  an  award,  be  final  and 
conclusive  on  the  rights  and  claims  of 
said  parties. 

IN  WITNESS  WHEREOF,  the  President  of 

Eailroad  Company  hath  signed  the 

same  and  caused  the  corporate  seal  of  the 
said  company  to  be  attached,  and  the  said 

hath  hereunto  set  —  hand  and  seal 

the  day  and  year  first  above  written. 

<     Seal  of    ) 

Attest :  '  Company.  $ 

7 

Secy. 


President. 
[SEAL.] 


.     [SEAL.] 

.    [SEAL.] 

WITNESS  : 


150  THE   RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

In  making  a  contract  for  building 
a  railway,  it  is  customary,  when  the  En- 
gineer makes  his  monthly  statement  or 
estimate,  to  reserve  10  per  cent,  of  it 
until  the  final  estimate  is  made,  or  until 
the  work  has  been  accepted  by  the  En- 
gineer, at  which  time  it  is  paid  over  to 
the  contractor.  Great  attention  should 
be  given  to  tracklaying,  and  in  no  in- 
stance should  a  contractor  undertake  a 
contract  for  tracklaying  who  is  not  fami- 
liar with  the  process  or  operation  which 
he  undertakes.  Ignorance  of  the  subject 
will  be  a  cause  of  heavy  losses  by  the  con- 
tractor and  endless  annoyance  to  the  En- 
gineer and  Eailroad  Company.  A  GANG 
OF  ABOUT  40  MEN  is  as  large  a  party  as 
can  work  advantageously  together,  and 
at  one  point.  This  gang  is  sufficiently 
strong  in  numbers  to  lay  about  three- 
quarters  of  a  mile  of  track  per  day.  The 
entire  COST  OF  LAYING  THE  TRACK,  in- 
cluding loading  and  unloading,  and  trans- 
porting the  material,  together  with  all 


PERMANENT   WAY. 


151 


backfilling  and  surfacing,  will  be  on  a 
single  track  railroad  about  $500  per  mile. 
This  also  includes  the  laying  of  frogs  and 
switches,  curving  of  rails,  and  all  inciden- 
tal expenses  properly  belonging  to  the 
laying  of  the  track. 

VALUE  OF  IRON  per  Gross  Ton  at  from 
1— 10th  of  a  cent  to  10  cents  per  lb.,  in- 
creasing at  the  rate  of  1— Wth  cent  per  lb. 


Per  lb.  in 
cts.fc  l-10ths. 

1-10   

2-        

3-       

4-       

5-       

6- 


8- 
9- 

1-10 
2- 
3- 
4- 

5- 
6- 

7- 

8- 
9- 


Price 
per  ton. 

$2  24 
4  48 
6  72 
8  96 
11  20 
13  44 
15  68 
17  92 
20  16 
22  40 
24  64 
26  88 
29  12 
31  36 
33  60 
35  84 
38  08 
40  32 
42  56 


Per  lb.  in 
cts.fc  l-10ths. 


1-10 

2- 

3- 

4- 

5- 

6- 

7- 

8- 

9- 

1-10 
2- 
3- 
4- 

5- 
6- 

7- 
8- 
9- 


Price 
per  ton. 

$44  00 
47  04 
49  28 
51  52 
53  76 
56  00 
58  24 
60  48 
62  72 
64  96 
67  20 
69  44 
71  68 
73  92 
76  16 
78  40 
80  64 
82  88 
85  12 
87  36 


150  THE   RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

In  making  a  contract  for  building 
a  railway,  it  is  customary,  when  the  En- 
gineer makes  his  monthly  statement  or 
estimate,  to  reserve  10  per  cent,  of  it 
until  the  final  estimate  is  made,  or  until 
the  work  has  been  accepted  by  the  En- 
gineer, at  which  time  it  is  paid  over  to 
the  contractor.  Great  attention  should 
be  given  to  tracklaying,  and  in  no  in- 
stance should  a  contractor  undertake  a 
contract  for  tracklaying  who  is  not  fami- 
liar with  the  process  or  operation  which 
he  undertakes.  Ignorance  of  the  subject 
will  be  a  cause  of  heavy  losses  by  the  con- 
tractor and  endless  annoyance  to  the  En- 
gineer and  Eailroad  Company.  A  GANG 
OF  ABOUT  40  MEN  is  as  large  a  party  as 
can  work  advantageously  together,  and 
at  one  point.  This  gang  is  sufficiently 
strong  in  numbers  to  lay  about  three- 
quarters  of  a  mile  of  track  per  day.  The 
entire  COST  OF  LAYING  THE  TRACK,  in- 
cluding loading  and  unloading,  and  trans- 
porting the  material,  together  with  all 


PERMANENT   WAY. 


151 


backfilling  and  surfacing,  will  be  on  a 
single  track  railroad  about  $500  per  mile. 
This  also  includes  the  laying  of  frogs  and 
switches,  curving  of  rails,  and  all  inciden- 
tal expenses  properly  belonging  to  the 
laying  of  the  track. 


VALUE  OF  IRON  per  Gross  Ton  at  from 
1— 10th  of  a  cent  to  10  cents  per  Ib.,  in- 
creasing at  the  rate  of  1— ~LQth  cent  per  Ib. 


Per  Ib.  in 

cta.&  l-10ths. 


2- 
3- 
4- 

5- 
6- 
7- 
8- 
9- 


2- 
3- 

5- 
6- 

7- 
8- 
9- 


Price 
per  ton. 

$2  24 
4  48 
6  72 
8  96 
11  20 
13  44 
15  68 
17  92 
20  16 
22  40 
24  64 
26  88 
29  12 
31  36 
33  60 
35  84 
38  08 
40  32 
42  56 


Per  Ib.  in 
cts.fc  l-10ths. 


1-10 

2- 
3- 
4- 
5- 
6- 

8- 
9- 


2- 
3- 

4- 
5- 
6- 

7- 
8- 
9- 


Price 
per  ton. 

$44  00 
47  04 
49  28 
51  52 
53  76 
56  00 
58  24 
60  48 
62  72 
64  96 
67  20 
69  44 
71  68 
73  92 
76  16 
78  40 
80  64 
82  88 
85  12 
87  36 


152 


THE   RAILWAY    BUILDER. 


Per  Ib.  in 
cts.&  l-10ths. 
4     

Price 
per  ton. 

$89  60 

Per  Ib.  in 

cts.&]-10ths. 

7     .  ... 

Price 
per  ton. 

$156  80 

1  10 

91  84 

1  10 

158  04 

2_ 

94  08 

9 

161  28 

3-   

96  32 

0 

163  52 

4_ 

98  56 

4 

165  76 

5— 

100  80 

5 

168  00 

6- 

103  04 

6 

170  24 

7- 

105  28 

172  48 

8-   

107  52 

8-   

174  72 

9-   

109  76 

9_   

176  96 

5     

112  00 

8     .  ... 

179  20 

1  10 

114  24 

1  10 

181  44 

2— 

116  48 

2_ 

183  68 

3- 

118  62 

3 

185  92 

4-   

120  96 

4-   

188  16 

5-   

123  20 

5-   

190  40 

6- 

125  44 

(] 

192  64 

7_   

127  68 

7 

194  88 

8-   

129  92 

8 

197  12 

9-   

132  16 

9-   

199  36 

6     

134  40 

9     

201  60 

1-10  

136  64 

1  10 

203  84 

2- 

138  88 

2 

206  08 

3-   

141  12 

3- 

208  32 

4-   

143  36 

4_ 

210  56 

5-   

145  60 

5- 

212  80 

6-   

147  84 

6— 

215  04 

7-   

150  08 

217  28 

8-   

152  32 

8- 

219  52 

9-   

154  56 

9- 

221  76 

10     

224  00 

TRESTLES   are   wooden    supports    de- 
signed to  carry  the  roadbed  of  a  railway 


PERMANENT   WAY.  153 

over  any  depressions  or  water-courses,  or 
other  places  where  it  is  required  to  avoid 
the  expense  of  embankments,  as,  for 
example,  where  earth  cannot  be  obtained 
for  grading  and  filling  in.  They  are  fre- 
quently used  on  railroads,  as  they  cost 
only  about  one -half  the  price  of  em- 
bankments. Yery  often  they  are  used 
only  as  a  temporary  expedient,  to  be  filled 
in  with  earth  as  soon  as  the  road  has  been 
completed,  and  is  in  operation.  The  de- 
sign of  a  trestle  varies  with  the  height  it 
is  proposed  to  make  it.  The  approximate 
COST  OF  TRESTLING,  where  the  height  is 
not  more  than  30  feet,  is  about  $6  per  run- 
ning or  lineal  foot.  The  timber  used  in 
their  construction  is  of  the  kind  to  be 
found  along  the  line  or  contiguous  to  it. 
Over  swamps  and  marshy  grounds  a 
cheap  and  economical  foundation  can  be 
secured  by  driving  piles,  as  in  the  an- 
nexed engraving,  and  capping  them  with 
stout  pieces  of  timber  roughly  hewn  to 
shape.  These  caps  are  made  to  support 


154  THE   EAILWAY   BUILDER. 

the  longitudinal  stringers,  which  in  turn 
support  light  plank-sills  carrying  the 
rails.  For  a  single  track  railroad  not 


END  VIEW.  BIDE  VIEW. 

Fig.  6. 

having  any  extraordinarily  heavy  traffic, 
the  timbers  forming  this  trestle  may  be 
of  the  following  dimensions : — 

Piles       .         .         .  12"      diameter. 

Cap        ...  12"xl4"     " 

Stringers         .         .  12"xl4" 

Sills        ...  3"  planking. 

And  the  entire  cost  in  position  will  not 
be  more  than  $2.50  per  lineal  or  running 
foot,  provided  the  timber  can  be  procured 
along  the  line  of  the  road.  If  necessary, 
light  trestling  10  or  12  feet  high  can  be 
erected  on  the  caps  with  safety.  Care 


PERMANENT   WAY.  155 

should  be  taken  to  drive  the  piles  so  as 
to  come '  directly  under  the  line  of  each 
rail,  and  the  cap  should  be  neatly  mortised 
to  the  pile.  Longitudinally  the  piles  may 
be  driven  from  8  to  10  feet  apart.  The 
gauge  of  the  road  should  determine  the 
cross  distances.  On  the  Northeastern 
Railroad,  in  South  Carolina,  such  a  trestle 
has  been  in  use  for  25  years,  and  with 
careful  watching  and  necessary  repairs 
is  still  in  use.  Other  roads  in  the  South 
also  use  it ;  notably  the  Savannah  and 
Charleston  Railroad.  White  pine  is 
generally  preferred ;  yellow  pine  where 
it  can  be  procured. 

On  the  subject  of  BRIDGES  the  author 
of  this  work  is  limited  to  a  mere  notice ; 
no  abridgment  of  so  important  a  subject 
would  be  at  all  satisfactory  to  an  En- 
gineer, and  of  very  little  use  to  the  un- 
scientific reader.  It  is,  therefore,  thought 
advisable  to  simply  add  a  few  tables  of 
reference  suitable  for  a  handbook.  There 
are  so  many  excellent  works  on  bridges 


156  THE   RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

that  an  inquiring  reader  can  easily  fol- 
low up  the  subject  in  detail  for  himself. 

In  this  country  iron  is  largely  used 
in  the  construction  of  bridges.  For 
approximating  roughly  the  WEIGHT  OF 
IRON  BRIDGES  we  have  the  following  from 
Trautwine,  for  spans  not  exceeding  about 
300  feet. 

RULE. — (Span  -f  sq.  root  of  span)  x 
6.4  ea  weight  in  pounds.  This  means  the 
weight  of  the  two  trusses  only,  as  used 
for  a  single  track  railroad.  The  weight 
of  cross  girders  of  floor,  lateral  bracing, 
floor  boards,  rail  strings,  and  rails,  with 
their  spikes,  bolts,  rods,  nuts,  washers, 
etc.  etc.,  will  not  vary  much  per  foot  run 
of  span,  in  spans  exceeding  about  50  feet. 
From  this  rule  the  following  table  is  de- 
duced : — 


PERMANENT   WAY. 


157 


(TRAUTWINE.) 

Table  of  approximate  average  weights  per  foot  run  of 
span,  of  only  the  two  iron  trusses  together,  of  a  strong 
single-track  railway  bridge  of  the  ordinary  systems. 
Also  the  weights  including  the  floor,  lateral  bracing, 
etc.,  complete,  taken  at  18  ions,  or  403  /6s.  per  feet  run 
of  span. 


Clear 
span. 

Weight  of  only 
the  two  trusses 
together  ;  per 
foot  run  of 
span. 

Weight  of  two 
trusses,  road- 
way, etc.,  com- 
plete ;  per  foot 
run  of  span. 

Entire 
weight  of 
bridge,  and 
max.  load.; 
per  foot  run. 

Feet. 

Tons. 

Lbs. 

Tons. 

Lbs. 

Tons. 

5 

.021 

47 

.201 

450 

4.201 

1 

.029 

65 

.209 

468 

3.709 

10 

.038 

85 

.218 

488 

3.218 

m 

.046 

103 

.226 

506 

2.626 

15 

.054 

121 

.234 

524 

2.534 

17* 

.062 

139 

.242 

542 

2.342 

20 

.070 

157 

.250 

560 

2.150 

25 

.086 

193 

.266 

596 

1.966 

30 

.101 

226 

.281 

629 

1.881 

35 

.117 

262 

.297 

665 

1.797 

40 

.133 

298 

.313 

701 

1.713 

45 

.148 

332 

.228 

735 

1.628 

50 

.163 

365 

.343     ' 

768 

1.543 

60 

.194 

435 

.374 

838 

1.374 

70 

.224 

502 

.404 

905 

1.404 

80 

.254 

569 

.434 

972 

1.434 

90 

.284 

636 

.464 

1039 

1.464 

100 

.314 

703 

.494 

1106 

1.494 

110 

.344 

771 

.524 

1174 

1.524 

120 

.374 

838 

.554 

1241 

1.554 

130 

.404 

905 

.584  * 

1308 

1.584 

140 

.434 

972 

.614 

1375  I       1.614 

158 


THE   RAILWAY   BUILDER. 


Clear 

Weight  of  only 
the  two  trusses 

Weight  of  two 
trusses,  road- 

Entire 
weight  of 

span. 

together  ;  per 
foot  run  of 

way,  etc.,  com- 
plete ;  per  foot 

bridge,  and 
max.  load  ; 

span. 

run  of  span. 

per  foot  run. 

Feet. 

Tons. 

Lbs. 

Tons. 

Lbs. 

Tons. 

150 

.463 

1037 

.643 

1440 

1.643 

160 

.493 

1104 

.673 

1507 

1.673 

170 

.523 

1172 

.703 

1575 

1.703 

180 

.553 

1239 

.733 

1642 

1.733 

190 

.583 

1306 

.763 

1709 

1.763 

200 

.612 

1371 

.792 

1774 

1.792 

225 

.687 

1539 

.867 

1942 

1.867 

250 

.760 

1702 

.940 

2105 

1.940 

275 

.833 

1866 

1.013 

2269 

2.013 

300 

.907 

2032 

1.087 

2435 

2.087 

WOODED  BRIDGES  WEIGH  about  the 
same  as  iron  ones  of  equal  strength. 

FOUNDATIONS  for  the  abutments  of 
bridges  and  culverts  must  receive  careful 
attention.  When  the  surface  of  the 
ground  upon  which  it  is  intended  to 
build  masonry  is  hard  and  compact  for 
a  distance  or  depth  of  5  or  6  feet,  no 
extra  precautions  need  be  taken  beyond 
removing  a  foot  or  two  of  the  surface 
before  commencing  the  masonry;  but 
in  soft  marshy  ground  it  is  necessary  to 


PERMANENT   WAY.  159 

drive  piles  and  obtain  a  foundation,  or 
else  build  cribs  of  rough  hewn  timber  to 
sink  to  the  hard  soil  by  filling  with  stones. 
The  Eeading  Eailroad  Company's  wharves 
at  the  foot  of  Willow  Street,  Philadelphia, 
are  built  on  piles  driven  to  a  depth  of 
about  8  to  15  feet  in  the  mud.  The  tops 
of  these  piles  were,  after  being  driven, 
cut  off  at  low- water  mark,  and  were  then 
clamped  together  in  rows,  with  6"  x  10" 
timbers  bolted  on  each  side  of  the  pile 
(at  low- water  mark),  which  had  been  pre- 
viously cut  and  shouldered,  thus — 


Fig.  6a. 


160  THE    RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

A  screw  bolt  passing  through  these 
clamps  and  the  head  of  each  pile  held 
them  firmly  in  position.  On  top  of  these 
clamps,  as  shown  in  the  illustration, 
rested  a  cap  of  roughly  hewn  timber  suffi- 
ciently large  to  cover  both  clamps  and 
the  heads  of  the  piles.  Across  these  caps 
the  flooring  was  laid,  and  on  that  the 
masonry  was  built.  The  piles  were  driven 
in  regular  rows  averaging  about  3  feet 
apart,  and  for  the  most  part  were  of  good 
yellow  pine,  and  were  pointed  with  the 
axe  before  being  driven.  The  "monkey" 
or  hammer  used  in  driving  them  weighed 
about  2700  pounds,  and  required  on  an 
average  20  blows  to  drive  them  home. 

For  the  extreme  end  of  the  wharf  a 
section  of  crib  work  was  made,  which  after 
being  towed  into  position,  was  sunk  by 
throwing  stones  into  it  until  the  top  of  it 
came  to  low- water  mark.  Work  was  then 
resumed  on  it,  and  a  flooring  put  in,  on 
top  of  which  more  crib  work  was  built, 
and  then  filled  in  with  mud  and  dirt 


/^     OFTH, 

K  TJNIVEB 


PERMANENT    WAY.  — ^AL 


dredged  from  the  bottom  of  the  river  and 
elsewhere.  Mr.  Wm.  Rotan  was  the  con- 
tractor who  built  these  piers  or  wharves, 
acting  under  the  immediate  supervision 
of  the  writer. 

CULVERTS  are  small  openings  placed  in 
the  bank  at  any  depression  in  the  ground, 
to  permit  the  water  to  drain  through  the 
bank,  and  not  become  dammed  up  against 
it.  An  ordinary  single  box  drain  is  built 
in  the  following  manner:  Stake  out  the 
four  corners  for  a  foundation,  and  dig  out 
the  inclosed  space  at  least  12  inches  deep. 
Then  commence  paving  in  this  space  with 
stones  set  on  edge,  taking  care  to  have 
"headers"  rammed  down  at  each  mouth 
a  foot  further  or  deeper  than  the  paving. 
On  top  of  this  commence  the  walls,  mak- 
ing each  wall  as  thick  as  the  drain  is 
wide.  Then  place  the  roof  or  curbing  in 
position,  allowing  each  curb  a  foot  rest 
on  each  wall,  then  back  the  remaining 
space  on  the  wall  with  small  stones  or 
"spawls."  For  a  DOUBLE  BOX  DRAIN 
11 


162  THE   RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

proceed  as  in  single  drain,  the  only  dif- 
ference being  the  middle  wall  which 
should  be  one  foot  (at  least)  thick,  allow- 
ing each  curb  to  rest  on  it  6  inches,  and  a 
foot  on  each  side  wall.  BRAINS  ON  A  SKEW 
should  be  avoided  by  changing  the  course 
of  the  stream.  A  DRAIN  ON  A  CURVE 
should  be  avoided  altogether.  Culvert 
masonry  will  COST  about  $3.50  per  cubic 
yard. 


CHAPTER  Y. 

FROGS  AND  SWITCHES. 

To  enable  an  engine  or  train  to  pass 
safely  from  one  track  to  another,  an  ar- 
rangement of  rails  and  levers  must  be 
introduced,  commonly  termed  a  CROSS- 
OVER or  TURNOUT.  A  SWITCH  consists 
simply  of  two  movable  rails,  essentially 
part  of  the  main  track,  which  can  be 
moved  so  as  to  connect  either  with  the 
main  track  or  siding,  and  is  made  and 
called  "RIGHT  HANDED"  or  "LEFT  HAND- 
ED," as  the  case  may  be.  The  word 
Switch  comes  from  the  German  sweig,  sig- 
nifying a  branch  or  twig.  A  right-handed 
switch  is  determined  in  this  manner: 
Stand  at  the  toe  of  the  switch,  or  the  joint 
made  by  the  movable  rails,  and  looking 
towards  the  frog;  if  the  siding  branches 
off  to  the  right  it  requires  a  right-handed 
switch,  but  if  it  branches  off  to  the  left, 

163 


164  THE   RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

then  a  left-handed  switch  is  necessary. 
This  applies  more  particularly  to  the  pa- 
tent safety  switches,  not  much  difference 
being  noticeable  in  the  ordinary  switches 
called  stub  switches.  The  ends  of  the 
movable  rails  of  a  switch,  being  the  centre 
or  fulcrum  around  which  they  move,  are- 
called  the  "HEELS,"  and  the  other  ends 
of  the  movable  rails  are  called  the  "  TOES." 
The  distance  the  toes  move  when  the 
switch  is  being  operated  is  called  the 
"  THROW,"  and  is  usually  five  inches. 
These  movable  rails,  when  set  for  the 
siding,  form  the  tangents  at  their  toes  of 
which  the  turnout  curve  begins.  The 
angle  with  which  this  curve  crosses  the 
main  track  rails  determines  the  size  or 

NUMBER  OF  THE  FROG.  The  FROG  DIS- 
TANCE is  measured  from  the  toe  of  the 
switch  to  the  point  of  the  frog.  THE 
NUMBER  OF  A  FROG  is  the  proportion  be- 
tween the  length  and  breadth  of  its  point ; 
that  is,  a  point  measuring  six  feet  in 
length  and  one  foot  across  its  base  would 
be  a  number  six  frog  point.  Frogs  are 


FROGS   AND   SWITCHES. 


165 


166 


THE   RAILWAY   BUILDER. 


numbered  usually  from  four  to  twelve 
without  any  fractional  sizes,  although 
special  angles  are  often  required.  The 
"THROAT"  of  a  frog  is  the  space  between 
the  wings  and  the  point  in  which  the 
flanges  of  the  wheels  run.  The  following 
table  gives  the  frog  distances  for  the  dif- 
ferent numbers  of  the  frogs. 

Table  of  Frog  Distances. 
(Original.) 


Switch  30' 

Switch  26' 

Switch  24' 

Switch  20' 

long, 
throw  5". 

long, 
throw  5". 

long, 
throw  5". 

long, 
throw  6". 

Frog 

o£ 

2«' 

6  c? 

o5*5 

°'t 

$•£ 

dg5 

2s 

angle. 

te| 

£3 

fil 

*£ 

feS 

12 

87.9' 

12 

86.1' 

4O.40  ' 

11 

81.5 

11 

80.0 

11 

79.1' 

11 

76.7 

5.02 

10 

75.0 

10 

73.7 

10 

72.7 

10 

70.8 

5.44 

9 

63.0 

9 

67.2 

9 

66.5 

9 

64.7 

6.21 

8 

61.0 

8 

60.5 

8 

60.0 

8 

58.5 

7.10 

7 

54.3 

7 

53.6 

7 

53.0 

7 

52.0 

8.10 

6 

47.1 

6 

46.6 

6 

46.2 

6 

45.4 

9.32 

THE  STUB  SWITCH. 

The  most  simple  form  of  switch  in  use 


FROGS   AND   SWITCHES. 


167 


168  THE   RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

is  the  common  stub  switch.  It  consists 
mainly  of  two  movable  rails  D  D — part  of 
the  main  track — clamped  together  with 
"  tie  rods"  so  as  to  move  together  when 
thrown  back  or  forth  by  means  of  any 
simple  lever  at  A  (fig.  8).  The  manner 
of  working  this  switch  is  so  simple  as 
to  require  no  explanation,  though  the 
minor  details  of  construction  admit  of 
much  variety.  At  the  heels  b  b  the  rails 
are  held  firmly  in  position  by  means  of 
fish  plates.  Track-men  very  often  make 
this  joint  a  "loose  joint;"  this  is  en- 
tirely unnecessary  to  effect  the  object 
intended ;  the  movable  rails  should  never 
be  less  than  twenty  feet  long,  and  the 
spring  of  a  rail  of  that  length  is  amply 
sufficient  for  the  throw  of  the  switch, 
and  is  consequently  all  that  is  required. 
The  toes  of  the  switch  should  always  rest 
on  cast-iron  "chairs,"  in  order  that  the 
switch  can  be  worked  easily,  and  also  to 
prevent  the  sharp  ends  of  the  rails  from 
sinking  into  the  wooden  support  or  sill. 
Wrough  iron  straps  should  also  be  used 


V  O.N  X  V  JliX\  t>±  1 


FROGS   AND   SWITCHES.  169 

—  fish  plates  do  very  well  —  at  least  three 
on  each  side,  to  be  placed  under  the 
movable  rails  as  sliding  blocks.  The 
chair  is  usually  made  of  cast-iron  to  fit 
the  end  section  of  the  two  fixed  rails,  and 
to  form  a  positive  base  for  the  movable 
rail  to  slide  on,  and  should  measure  at 
least  12  x  16  inches,  and  have  not  less 
than  one  inch  metal  in  its  weakest  part. 

This  chair  is  also  made  of  wrought 
iron,  with  inverted  clamps  to  hold  the 
ends  of  the  fixed  rails,  and  sometimes 
of  iron  and  wood  together,  forming  a 
cushion  and  giving  a  certain  amount  of 
elasticity.  A  pair  of  these  chairs  will 
cost  about  $5.00. 

The  "tie  rods"  connecting  the  two  mo- 
vable rails  are  made  in  many  different 
styles,  all  of  which  have  some  merit,  ex- 
cept the  kind  which  necessitates  drilling 
the  flanges  of  the  rails.  It  has  been 
proven  by  practice  that  any  imperfection 
existing  in  the  flange  of  a  rail,  more  parti- 
cularly of  a  steel  rail,  seriously  affects  the 
strength  of  the  section,  and  is  almost  cer- 


170  THE   RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

tain  to  cause  fracture.  A  hole  drilled  or 
punched  through  the  flange  of  a  rail  will 
generally  produce  the  same  result.  A 
tie  rod  made  of  square  iron  1  \"  x  V  with 
clamps  on  each  end  made  to  fit  the  lower 
half  of  the  rail  section  is  the  very  best  in 
use.  Five  tie  rods  are  generally  used  to 
each  switch,  and  are  placed  five  feet  apart, 
the  first  one  commencing  ten  inches  from 
the  toe  of  the  switch.  The  "stand"  can 
be  made  of  wood  or  iron  in  any  variety 
of  shape  or  size.  The  best  are  made  of 
cast  iron,  weighing  about  150  pounds. 
When  a  "target"  is  used  the  stand  should 
not  weigh  less  than  that,  in  order  to  have 
strength  sufficient  to  resist  the  sudden 
wrenching  and  jarring  produced  in  throw- 
ing the  switch.  Care  should  be  taken 
when  laying  the  switch  to  have  the  stand 
firmly  secured  with  two  or  more  screw 
bolts  passing  through  the  base  of  the 
stand  apd  the  sill  it  rests  on,  in  addition 
to  the  ordinary  number  of  spikes.  And 
the  connecting  rod  by  means  of  which  the 
stand  lever  is  connected  with  the  switch 


Switch  stand,  with  target 


171 


172  THE    RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

should  be  supplied  with  a  sleeve-joint  to 
admit  of  tightening  up  as  it  becomes  loose 
by  wear  and  length  of  service.  Where 
the  stand  and  target  would  take  up  too 
much  room,  the  ground  lever  can  be  used 
to  advantage.  It  is  so  familiar  to  all  rail- 
road men  as  to  require  no  further  men- 
tion. A  "three  throw,"  or,  as  it  is  often 
incorrectly  termed,  a  "double  throw" 
switch,  does  not  differ  materially  from 
the  single  stub  switch  described  above, 
except  simply  in  the  "chairs,"  which  are 
made  larger  to  allow  the  introduction  of 
an  additional  rail.  All  switch  stands  are 
made  for  a  "three  throw"  switch,  and  are 
used  for  both  kinds.  The  stub  switch  has 
also  been  made  practically  a  safety  switch 
by  means  of  additional  castings  so  ar- 
ranged and  fastened  to  the  switch  that 
they  receive  the  wheels  of  the  engine, 
when  they  leave  the  track  by  accident, 
and  guide  them  safely  back  again.  There 
are  several  modifications  of  this  prin- 
ciple, but  in  the  main  idea  they'are  simi- 


FROGS  AND   SWITCHES.  173 

lar.  At  the  best  they  are  clumsy  un- 
mecliamcal  contrivances,  and  can  rarely 
be  depended  on  to  do  the  work  intended. 
There  are  a  very  few  exceptions,  but  the 
first  cost  of  these  is  in  most  cases  too 
great  to  admit  of  their  use. 

Although  a  comparatively  safe  switch 
on  our  leading  railroads,  where  they  are 
well  protected  by  signals  and  other  mo- 
dern appliances,  the  stub  switch  is  in  itself 
an  imperfect,  dangerous  switch  and  open 
to  many  serious  objections,  the  principal 
one  being  the  noisy  open  joint  causing 
enormous  wear  and  tear  of  the  rolling 
stock  and  destructive  mashing  of  the  rails. 
Even  by  exercising  the  utmost  care  the 
joints  formed  by  the  movable  rails  will 
prove  a  source  of  endless  annoyance,  often 
interlocking  by  expansion  in  summer, 
and  growing  so  large  in  winter  by  the 
rails  contracting  and  "crawling"  as  to 
need  frequent  renewal.  The  cost  of  a 
stub  switch  complete,  including  the  chairs, 
rods,  stand,  and  target,  ready  for  laying 


174 


THE   RAILWAY   BUILDER. 


FROGS  AND   SWITCHES.  175 

in  the  track,  is  about  $35.00  per  set. 
BOOLE Y'S  SWITCH,  by  having  the  joints 
of  the  movable  rails  placed  so  that  the 
wheels  when  riding  over  them  will  go 
Saver  one  joint  at  a  time,  is  similar  to  the 
stub  switch,  except  that  the  joints  are 
not  placed  opposite  to  each  other,  one 
joint  being  a  few  feet  back  of  the  line  of 
the  other;  otherwise  it  is  a  stub  switch, 
and  costs  about  the  same.  THE  NICOLLS' 
SWITCH,  designed  by  the  author  with  the 
same  idea — to  lessen  the  jar  and  shock 
produced  by  the  wheels  passing  over  two 
open  joints — has  only  one  open  joint  in 
its  construction. 

As  shown  in  the  figure,  the  switch  is 
set  for  the  main  line.  A  is  one  of  the 
main  track  rails,  unbroken  and  continu- 
ous; C  and  D  form  together  the  other 
main  line  rail,  having  an  open  joint  at  H, 
as  in  the  ordinary  stub  switch.  The  rail 
B  is  planed  or  tapered  to  a  point,  and 
when  closed  fits  up  snugly  to  the  rail  A, 
as  in  the  Lorenz  Safety  Switch  (described 


176 


THE    RAILWAY    BUILDER. 


FKOGS  AND   SWITCHES.  177 

hereafter).  B  and  C  are  the  two  movable 
rails  which,  unlike  other  switches,  move 
in  opposite  directions  by  means  of  the  lever 
F  and  the  two  cranks  Gr  and  H.  At  b 
and  c  these  two  movable  rails  are  con- 
nected by  fish  plates  with  the  fixed  rails 
of  the  main  track  and  siding,  as  described 
previously  on  page  141.  To  operate  the 
switch  it  is  only  necessary  to  raise  the 
handle  F,  and  throw  it  over  from  the 
track  as  in  the  common  ground  lever 
switch;  this  motion  by  means  of  the 
crank  H  draws  the  rail  C  over  in  line 
with  the  rail  E  of  the  siding,  and  by 
means  of  the  crank  at  G  shoves  the  pointed 
rail  B  over  against  the  rail  A,  thus  setting 
the  switch  for  the  siding.  The  simplicity 
of  its  design,  the  fact  of  its  having  only 
one  connecting  rod  across  the  track,  and 
having  only  one  joint,  establishes  its  supe- 
riority over  the  stub  switch,  which  has 
five  connecting  rods  and  two  open  joints. 
A  SAFETY  SWITCH  is  so  constructed 
that  if  it  be  left  by  accident  set  wrong,  an 
12 


178  THE    KAILWAY   BUILDER. 

engine  or  train  will  not  be  thrown  from 
the  track  when  attempting  to  pass  through 
it.  Very  many  devices  have  been  invent- 
ed to  effect  this  object,  and  some  merit 
can  be  claimed  for  almost  all  that  are  now 
in  use.  A  favorite  safety  switch  in  Eng- 
land, and  one  which  has  given  general 
satisfaction  in  this  country  also,  is  THE 
"SPLIT  RAIL  SWITCH,"  or,  as  it  is  better 
known  in  this  country,  the  LORENZ 
SAFETY  SWITCH,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
Mr.  Wm.  Lorenz,  Chief  Engineer  of  the 
Beading  Eailroad  Company,  greatly  im- 
proved its  construction  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  rubber  springs.  The  construction 
of  the  switch  is  well  denned  by  its  name, 
the  two  movable  rails  being  split,  or 
planed  down  to  points  which  fit  up  closely 
alongside  of  the  outer  rails  of  the  track. 
The  flanges,  of  the  wheels  of  the  engine 
passing  between  these  points  and  the  outer 
rails  shove  them  aside,  and  by  doing  so 
operate  the  switch.  The  rubbers  which 
Mr.  Lorenz  introduced  are  placed  in  the 


FROGS   AND   SWITCHES.  179 


J80  THE    RAILWAY    BUILDER. 

rods  which  are  used  to  operate  the  switch, 
and  in  such  a  manner  that  any  strain 
coming  on  the  rods  is  received  by  them, 
and  owing  to  their  elastic  nature  is  ren- 
dered harmless.  The  split  rail  switch,  as 
shown  in  the  figure,  is  operated  as  fol- 
lows :  In  the  diagram  the  switch  is  shown 
set  for  the  siding.  A  represents  a  con- 
tinuous rail  belonging  to  the  side  track, 
and  D  the  continuous  rail  of  the  main 
track,  both  of  which  are  unbroken  rails, 
perfect  in  their  entire  length.  This  is 
one  of  the  chief  merits  of  the  switch,  as 
in  either  case,  whether  set  for  the  siding 
or  for  the  main  line,  one  of  the  rails  will 
be  continuous  and  unbroken,  and  conse- 
quently no  jarring  or  noise  is  experienced 
when  running  over  it.  B  and  C  repre- 
sent two  rails  which  are  planed  and  made 
pointed,  so  as  to  fit  up  closely  to  the  rails 
A  and  D.  These  two  pointed  rails  are 
clamped  together  by  tie  rods  (usually  five 
in  number)  so  as  to  be  thrown  in  the  same 
direction  and  at  the  same  time  by  means 


FROGS  AND   SWITCHES.  181 

of  any  common  lever  at  E.  By  means  of 
this  lever  the  switch  is  operated.  It  will 
readily  be  observed  that  if  an  engine 
should  attempt  to  pass  from  right  to  left 
on  the  main  track  while  the  switch  is  set 
for  the  siding,  as  shown  in  the  diagram, 
the  flanges  of  the  wheels  will  go  between 
the  rails  D  and  C  and  force  them  apart,  and 
the  rail  D  being  immovably  spiked  down 
to  the  sills  will  not  move,  so  the  pointed 
rail  C  must  move,  and  also  its  opposite 
B,  both  being  clamped  together  and  only 
held  in  position  by  the  connecting  rod 
of  the  lever  which  will  break  or  yield, 
allowing  the  flange  to  pass  through,  the 
engine  consequently  keeping  on  the  track. 
In  like  manner  the  flanges  of  the  wheels 
will  operate  against  the  rail  B  should  a 
train  attempt  to  pass  out  of  the  siding 
when  the  switch  is  set  for  the  main  track. 
To  avoid  this  injury  to  the  switch,  that  is, 
the  breaking  of  the  connecting  -rod,  a 
spring  has  been  introduced,  indicated  at  F 
in  the  figure,  which  allows  enough  move- 


182  THE    RAILWAY    BUILDER. 

ment  to  make  space  enough  for  the  flanges 
to  pass  between  the  rails,  and  which,  after 
they  have  done  so,  by  their  elasticity 
draw  the  pointed  rails  back  again  into 
position  for  the  main  track.  This  spring 
Mr.  Lorenz  makes  of  rubber,  and  for  many 
years  has  used  it  on  the  Beading  Kail- 
road.  Some  other  roads,  however,  use  coil 
springs  of  steel,  which  answer  the  pur- 
pose probably  as  well. 

For  a  double  track  railroad  where  the 
trade  is  generally  moving  in  one  direction 
and  on  its  own  line  of  rails,  this  switch 
is  unquestionably  the  best  in  use ;  many 
years  of  experience  and  trial  have  proved 
its  superiority  over  other  safety  switches ; 
but  on  a  single  track  railroad  where  the 
switch  would  have  to  take  the  trade  at 
both  ends,  the  objection  is  raised  of 
"  running  against  the  points."  This 
switch  can  also  be  made  a  "  three 
throw"  switch,  operated  with  two  separate 
levers,  A  B,  as  shown  in  fig.  12.  The 
cost  of  a  Lorenz  Safety  Switch  is  about 


FROGS   AND   SWITCHES.  183 


184 


THE    RAILWAY   BUILDER. 


$110  per  set,  including  everything  and 
ready  for  laying  in  the  track.  When 
ordering  it  is  necessary  to  designate 
whether  a  right  or  left  handed  switch  is 
wanted.  The  following  table  for  correctly 
laying  a  Lorenz  Switch  is  added  for  the 
use  of  Eoadmasters  and  Engineers. 

Table  for  Laying  the  Lorenz  Safety  Switch. 
(Matthews.) 

Switch  Angle,  IP  30'. 

Throw  of  Switch  is  the  distance  between  flange 
sides  of  main  track  and  switch-rails  at  heel  of 
switch. 

Frog  Distance  is  the  distance  from  heel  of  switch 
to  point  of  frog,  measured  diagonally  across  the 
track. 


20  foot 
Switches. 

24  foot 
Switches. 

Switches. 
30  foot. 

Switch  angle, 

1030' 

1030' 

1030' 

Throw  of  Switch, 

6£  inch 

7£" 

9jr'' 

Frog  Distance, 

55  feet. 

53'8" 

51'7" 

Radius, 

556.64 

542.78' 

521.6 

Degree  of  Curve, 

100  18' 

100  34/ 

lio  00' 

Mid-ordinate, 

8£  inch. 

8" 

7|" 

N.  B.— 20   foot   Switch   means,  with   point-rails 
20'  long,  etc. 


FROGS  AND    SWITCHES.  185 

To  meet  the  objection  raised  against 
the  Lorenz  Switch  that  "it  is  dangerous 
to  run  against  the  points,"  Mr.  Ains worth, 
Roadmaster  of  the  North  Pennsylvania 
Railroad,  invented  and  patented  a  switch, 
as  shown  in  the  figure.  The  switch  is 
constructed  by  bending  the  main  track 
rail  A  so  as  to  receive  the  blunt  pointed 
switch  rail  B  when  shut,  which  forms  the 
lap  of  the  rails  at  that  point.  The  short 
or  tapered  switch  rail  C  is  made  in  the 
usual  manner,  and  both  are  connected  by 
the  rods  d  d  d  in  the  usual  way.  The 
flanges  of  both  switch  rails,  where  they 
overlap  the  main  rails,  are  so  shaped  as 
not  to  need  planing,  and  are  placed  above 
the  flange  of  the  main  rails  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  leave  the  switch  rail  flanges 
of  their  full  thickness.  The  switch  is  in 
position  for  main  track  use  when  the 
blunt  point  B  is  placed  alongside  the  bent 
main  rail  A.  When  the  blunt  switch  or 
movable  rail  is  open,  it  is  then  in  position 
for  the  siding.  The  inner  edge  of  the 


186 


THE    RAILWAY   BUILDER. 


FROGS  AND    SWITCHES.  187 

wheel  flanges  will  press  against  the  side 
of  the  switch  rail  which  will  guide  them 
into  the  switch,  and  the  distance  between 
the  flange  edge  of  the  two  switch  rails 
is  so  gauged  that  the  short  or  tapered 
point  is  always  out  of  the  reach  of  the 
flanges  of  the  wheels,  as  they  are  guided 
entirely  by  the  blunt-pointed  switch  rail, 
which  in  consequence  of  its  peculiar  shape 
may  be  left  open  the  space  of  half  the 
width  of  the  switch  rail  head  without 
endangering  the  safety  or  direction  of 
trains.  The  automatic  movement  may 
be  by  spring  or  other  known  devices  pre- 
viously described. 

The  WHARTON  SAFETY  SWITCH,  in- 
vented by  Wm.Wharton,  of  Philadelphia, 
gives  a  main  line  absolutely  continuous 
and  unbroken,  a  decided  merit,  which 
places  it  far  above  all  other  switches  for 
a  road  which  sacrifices  everything  else  to 
its  main  line  track.  On  long  single  track 
roads,  like  those  in  the  West  and  South, 
where  the  sidings  are  seldom  in  use,  and 


188 


THE    RAILWAY    BUILDER. 


FROGS  AND   SWITCHES.  189 

the  main  line  is  occupied  constantly  with 
fast  trains,  this  switch  is  preferable  to  any 
other;  but  in  cases  where  the  siding  is 
used  nearly  as  often  as  the  main  line,  the 
Lorenz  Safety  Switch  is  preferable.  The 
construction  of  this  switch  is  rather  com- 
plicated, and  has  many  parts,  but  is  easily 
adjusted.  In  the  diagram  (fig.  14)  A  and 
B  represent  the  main  track  rails,  which  it 
will  be  at  once  perceived  are  "  unbroken 
and  continuous."  C  and  D  are  two  mov- 
able rails  clamped  together  with  tie  rods, 
and  operated  as  shown  by  the  lever  at 
W,  which  is  supplied  with  a  weight.  C 
is  a  grooved  rail  planed  down  to  a  point, 
and  which  when  thrown  over  against  it, 
fits  under  the  head  of  the  main  rail  A, 
and  guides  the  flange  of  one  wheel  out 
on  the  siding,  while  the  opposite  wheel 
gradually  mounts  up  on  the  rail  D,  which 
is  somewhat  higher  than  the  main  rail  B, 
until  its  flange  clears  the  rail  B,  with  the 
tread  of  the  wheels  riding  on  D.  The 
wheel  is  then  carried  down  by  a  gradual 


190  THE    RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

decline  to  the  proper  level  of  the  track. 
At  the  ends  of  the  rails  C  D  are  placed 
two  castings  respectively  at  i,  which,  in 
case  an  engine  should  run  out  of  the  sid- 
ing with  the  switch  set  for  main  track, 
receive  the  wheels  and  guide  them  back 
again  to  the  main  track.  When  the 
switch  is  set  for  main  track,  as  shown 
in  the  figure,  the  curved  rail  E  lies  away 
from  the  rail  B,  but  when  set  for  the 
siding  the  same  motion  of  the  lever 
throws  it  over  against  the  rail  B,  where 
it  remains  as  long  as  the  switch  is  set  for 
the  siding.  Now,  supposing  a  train  to  be 
coming  on  the  main  track  from  right  to 
left,  and  the  switch  set  for  the  siding,  the 
first  wheel  flange  will  force  the  rail  E 
away  from  the  rail  B,  and  consequently 
by  means  of  the  connecting  rod  e,  will 
throw  the  lever  "W,  and  so  leave  the  main 
track  clear  and  unobstructed.  The  chief 
objection  brought  against  this  switch  is, 
that  it  will  not  admit  of  fast  running  both 
ways,  and  is  therefore  exclusively  a  main 


FROGS  AND   SWITCHES.  191 

line  switch.  An  engine  running  on  the 
side  track  at  any  very  high  rate  of  speed 
is  very  apt  to  rock  badly  while  passing 
over  the  main  track  rails.  This  objection 
is  met  in  a  great  measure  by  the  fact  that 
in  passing  in  or  out  of  a  siding  the  train 
generally  "slows  up,"  and  consequently 
passes  over  the  switch  quietly.  THE 
COST  of  the  switch  complete  is  about 
$125  per  set,  ready  for  laying  in  the 
track. 

The  "SINGLE  TONGUE  SWITCH"  is  more 
generally  known  in  this  country  as  the 
Thiemeyer  switch,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
a  Mr.  Thiemeyer,  of  Baltimore,  patented 
a  few  slight  improvements  on  the  original 
switch.  It  has  been  in  use  in  Germany 
and  in  other  European  countries  for  many 
years.  In  its  construction  it  differs  from 
the  Lorenz  switch  in  the  manner  of  hav- 
ing only  one  pointed  tongue  which  is 
movable,  the  other  tongue  lying  on  the 
other  side  is  a  fixed  tongue,  making 
a  frog.  It  is  generally  made  of  heavy 


192  THE    RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

steel  castings,  and  although  a  suitable 
lever  is  much  preferable,  it  can  be  used 
without  one,  the  movable  rail  being  easily 
moved  by  the  foot.  The  switch  is  shown 
in  the  figure  set  for  the  main  line,  in 
which  case  the  rail  D  acts  as  a  guard  rail, 
and,  causing  the  wheel  flanges  to  pass 
through  the  throat  c,  in  a  line  parallel  to 
a,  keeps  the  wheels  in  the  main  track  rails 
A  E.  Now  in  order  to  set  the  switch  for 
the  siding  it  is  only  necessary  to  close 
the  tongue  D  against  the  main  rail  A, 
thereby  necessitating  the  passage  of  the 
wheels  over  the  rail  D,  and  consequently 
the  flanges  of  the  opposite  wheels  through 
the  throat  5,  past  the  point  E,  and  so  on 
to  the  siding  rails  D  B.  Or  should  the 
switch  by  accident  be  left  set  for  the  sid- 
ing, and  suppose  a  train  on  the  main  line 
passing  from  right  to  left;  as  soon  as 
it  reaches  the  rail  D  which,  when  the 
switch  is  closed,  would  be  close  up 
against  A,  the  flanges  of  the  wheels  will 
force  them  apart  and  pass  through,  the 


FKOGS   AND   SWITCHES. 


193 


13 


194  THE   KAILWAY   BUILDER. 

opposite  rails  E  and  B  being  arranged  as 
in  a  frog,  readily  carry  the  other  wheels 
from  E  to  B ;  or  vice  versa  if  left  set  for 
main  track,  and  a  train  should  come  down 
the  siding.  The  switch  works  well  in 
either  case,  and  is  a  safe,  reliable  switch, 
more  particularly  adapted  for  yards,  but 
doing  good  work  wherever  it  is  put,  in 
a  yard  or  main  track.  For  fast  running 
it  is  hardly  suitable,  as  the  continuity  of 
the  main  line  is  broken  by  the  frog  point 
at  E.  The  simplicity  of  its  construction, 
coupled  with  the  fact  of  its  perfect  safety, 
makes  it  a  general  favorite  among  rail- 
road men.  The  cost  of  the  single  tongue 
switch  complete  is  $90,  including  all 
attachments,  per  set.  The  Baltimore  and 
Ohio  Kailroad  Company  have  in  use  a 
great  number  of  these  switches,  but  have 
now  discontinued  laying  them,  using  in- 
stead a  switch  invented  by  Mr.  John  L. 
Wilson,  Koadmaster,  which  in  design  and 
operation  is  very  similar  to  the  Lorenz 
switch.  The  enormous  weight  of  the 


FROGS  AND   SWITCHES.  195 

machinery  on  this  road  necessitates  very 
heavy  track  material,  and  a  preference  is 
given  to  this  switch  because  the  tongues 
can  be  made  much  heavier  and  stronger 
of  forged  steel  than  is  possible  when  using 
a  planed  T-rail.  The  cost  of  making  this 
switch  is  somewhat  more  than  the  single 
tongue  and  Lorenz  switches,  owing  to  the 
heavy  forged  steel  tongues,  which  must 
be  first  hammered  and  then  planed  to 
shape. 

The  MOVABLE  GUARD  SWITCH  is  better 
known  as  WHITE'S  SAFETY  SWITCH,  and 
is  different  from  other  switches,  having 
both  of  the  points  fixed,  and  moving  in- 
stead the  two  guard  rails  which  are  usu- 
ally placed  to  guard  the  entrance  to  the 
switch.  By  shifting  these  guard  rails 
from  side  to  side  the  train  is  directed  into 
the  siding,  or  continues  its  course  along 
the  main  track.  Another  safety  switch, 
known  as  the  TYLER  SWITCH,  is  used  on 
the  Lake  Shore  and  Michigan  Southern 
Kailroad  as  their  standard  switch.  This 


196  THE    KAILWAY   BUILDER. 

switch  is  incorrectly  termed  the  Tyler 
switch,  as  it  was  invented  in  the  year  1842, 
by  Mr.  G.  A.  Nicolls,  at  that  time  con- 
nected with  the  Reading  Railroad,  and 
afterwards  President  of  the  Reading  and 
Columbia,  East  Pennsylvania,  and  other 
railroads,  and  was  in  successful  operation 
on  many  railroads  in  this  country  and  in 
Cuba,  when  he  received  a  patent  for  it  in 
1845.  Afterwards  Mr.  Philos  P.  Tyler, 
of  New  Orleans,  obtained  a  patent  for 
the  same  device.  The  switch  has  been 
extensively  used  on  the  Reading  Railroad, 
and  was  well  known  some  years  ago  as 
the  "NicoLLs'  SAFETY  SWITCH."  It  con- 
sists simply  of  two  extra  rails  with  cast- 
ings at  their  ends  so  arranged  that,  if  the 
switch  should  be  left  wrong,  these  extra 
rails  will  receive  the  wheels  of  the  engine 
and  train,  and  the  castings  will  guide 
them  safely  back  on  to  the  main  track. 
It  is  very  economical,  and  could  be  ap- 
plied to  any  stub  switch  now  in  use  by 
an  additional  trifling  cost  for  the  extra 
rails  and  costing  say  $10  for  each  switch. 


FROGS  AND    SWITCHES  197 

"With,  each  switch  a  "frog"  is  a  neces- 
sary adjunct.  The  word  FEOG,  as  applied 
to  the  railroad  contrivance,  is  so  named  on 
account  of  its  supposed  resemblance  to 
the  frog  of  a  horse's  foot.  Originally  a 
frog  was  nothing  more  than  a  swinging 
rail  pivoted  in  the  centre,  A,  as  shown  in 
the  figure ;  but  now  a  frog  is  a  casting  or 
other  mechanical  contrivance  to  enable 
the  wheels  of  a  moving  train  to  pass  over, 
by,  or  through  a  point  where  the  rail  of 
a  siding  necessarilly  crosses  the  rail  of  the 
main  track  (see  fig.  16).  There  are  two 
classes  of  frogs,  called  the  STIFF  FROGS 
and  SPRING  FROGS.  The  former  denotes 
a  solid  casting  or  combination  of  pieces 
bolted  stiffly  together,  and  which  when 
spiked  down  in  the  track  remains  im- 
movable, while  the  latter  term  implies  a 
frog  having  some  of  its  parts  arranged  so 
that  they  are  adjusted  by  springs,  and 
the  action  of  the  wheel  flanges  wher  pass- 
ing over  it  sets  it  right  for  the  tread  of 
the  wheels  to  ride  over.  Knowing  the 


198 


THE    RAILWAY    BUILDER. 


FKOGS  AND   SWITCHES.  199 

angle  with  which  the  siding  rail  crosses 
the  main  track  rail,  the  number  of  the 
frog  to  be  used  is  known,  as  this  angle 
determines  the  number  of  the  frog. 
Then  by  referring  to  the  preceding  table 
of  frog  distances,  the  distance  from  the 
toe  of  the  switch  to  where  the  point  of 
the  frog  should  be  is  quickly  ascertained. 
Now  to  find  the  radius  of  the  curve  to 
be  used  to  connect  these  two  points,  we 
have  the  following  by  Mr.  Trautwine: 
"From  the  frog  angle  take  the  switch 
angle,  the  remainder  will  be  the  angle 
at  the  centre  of  the  circle ;  which  angle 
call  C;  subtract  this  angle  from  180°, 
and  divide  the  remainder  by  2.  Call 
this  quotient  angle  A.  Then  as 

Nat.  sine  of    Nat.  sine  of  Radius> 

angle  C  angle  A 

If  it  is  necessary  to  start  a  turnout  from 
a  curved  piece  of  road,  the  frog  distance 
can  be  found  near  enough  for  practice, 
from  a  drawing  made  on  a  scale  of  about 
J  inch  to  one  foot.  And  so  in  the  numer- 


200  THE   RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

ous  cases  where  turnouts  cross  tracks  in 
various  directions  in  and  about  stations, 
depots,  etc."  These  can  then  be  laid 
out  on  the  ground  with  an  ordinary 
tape  line  from  the  measurements  given 
in  the  drawing,  near  enough  for  all  pur- 
poses. Ordinary  cast-iron  steel  plated 
stiff  frogs  of  the  average  size  (No.  8) 
will  COST  about  $30  apiece.  An  ob- 
jection to  their  use  is  the  difficulty 
experienced  in  keeping  them  in  posi- 
tion ;  being  short  and  entirely  distinct 
from  the  rails,  the  weight  of  the  cars  soon 
causes  a  rocking  motion  which  tends  to 
loosen  the  spikes  which  hold  it  in  posi- 
tion. An  improvement  in  this  frog  is  the 
steel  rail  frog  (see  fig.  18),  which  is  made 
up  of  the  ordinary  pattern  of  steel  T-rails 
in  many  different  styles  and  shapes,  but 
in  the  general  idea  the  same.  In  this 
frog  the  connection  with  the  main  rails 
is  made  by  means  of  the  ordinary  fish 
plates  and  spikes  as  are  used  in  connect- 
ing any  two  rails  together.  The  PRICE  of 


FROGS   AND   SWITCHES. 


201 


202  THE    RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

this  frog  (No.  8)  is  now  as  low  as  $28 
apiece.  THE  SPRING  FROGS  are  used  to 
avoid  crossing  a  channel  or  the  throat  of 
the  frog,  and  to  give  a  continuous  even 
bearing  to  the  wheels  when  passing  over 
it.  This  is  done  by  means  of  springs  so 
fastened  to  the  frog  that  the  flanges  of 
the  wheels  operate  against  the  rails,  and 
shift  them  into  such  a  position  that  the 
tread  of  the  wheel  will  always  ride  on  a 
smooth  even  bearing,  and  will  not  have  to 
cross  any  channel.  The  manner  of  work- 
ing it  is  as  follows :  The  rail  A  (fig.  19)  and 
the  rail  C,  forming  together  the  point  of 
the  frog,  are  securely  dovetailed  together, 
and  then  riveted  down  to  a  base  plate  of 
wrought  iron  a.  The  wing  rail  D  is  also 
riveted  to  this  plate  sufficiently  far  from 
the  point  to  allow  the  easy  passage  of  a 
car  wheel  flange  between  them,  usually 
If  inches.  The  other  wing  rail  B  is 
movable,  but  is  confined  in  position  by 
rubber  springs  at  e  e,  and  also  prevented 
from  rising  or  "crawling"  by  a  cross  bar 


FROGS   AND   SWITCHES. 


203 


204  THE   RAILWAY  BUILDER. 

/  which,  passes  through  oval  slots  in  the 
two  wing  rails,  and  also  the  point.  The 
frog  is  always  kept  set  right  for  the  main 
line  by  means  of  the  rubber  springs,  and  it 
will  readily  be  observed  that  a  train  pass- 
ing from  A  to  B  will  do  so  over  a  smooth 
unbroken  surface,  securing  much  comfort 
to  passengers,  and  a  great  saving  in  wear 
and  tear  to  motive  power  and  rolling 
stock.  In  passing  from  C  to  D,  or  on  the 
siding,  the  flange  of  the  first  wheel,  as 
soon  as  it  reaches  the  wing  rail  B  shoves 
it  aside  far  enough  to  pass  through,  and 
each  subsequent  wheel  in  like  manner, 
the  springs  allowing  the  necessary  motion 
by  compressing,  and  then  (after  the  wheels 
have  passed  through)  drawing  the  wing 
back  again  by  their  elasticity.  In  like 
manner  a  wheel  returning  from  D  to  C 
will,  with  the  aid  of  the  guard  rail  on  the 
other  side  of  the  track  (which  keeps  the 
wheels  "at  gauge"),  shove  the  wing  rail 
B  aside  and  pass  through  safely.  These 
frogs  are  in  use  on  the  main  line  of  the 


FROGS   AND   SWITCHES. 


205 


206  THE    KAILWAY    BUILDER. 

Pennsylvania  Railroad  and  many  other 
leading  roads.  They  are  usually  made 
15  feet  long,  and  cost  for  an  average  size 
(No.  8)  frog  $50  apiece.  The  elastic  frogs 
are  made  like  stiff  frogs,  but  have  alternate 
layers  of  wood  and  iron,  and  even  rubber 
for  a  base  plate.  The  most  prominent  of 
these  is  the  MANSFIELD  FROG,  which  some 
years  ago  was  very  extensively  used,  but 
can  now  be  hardly  classed  among  the 
best  frogs — the  wooden  base  having  been 
found  to  decay  and  crush  very  rapidly. 
The  MANSFIELD  FROG  used  to  sell  at 
$125  apiece.  Among  other  elastic  frogs, 
the  PIERCE  and  the  BILLINGS  obtained 
some  little  favor. 

A  CROSSING  is  necessary  where  one 
railroad  crosses  another,  and  when  the 
crossing  is  "at  grade,"  that  is,  one  rail- 
road is  on  a  level  with  the  other,  it  is  per- 
haps the  most  troublesome  part  of  the 
road,  and  no  doubt  the  most  expensive 
part  of  the  track;  the  former,  because  the 
utmost  caution  is  necessary  to  avoid  colli- 
sion, and  the  latter  on  account  of  the 


FROGS  AND   SWITCHES.  207 

double  wear  and  tear  of  the  rolling  stock 
when  passing  over  it.  The  danger  has 
been  obviated  in  several  States  by  a  law 
compelling  all  trains  to  come  to  a  full  stop 
before  crossing.  When  it  is  necessary  to 
cross  a  railroad,  it  is  always  advantageous 
to  do  so  with  a  tangent  and  without  any 
grade.  The  reason  is  obvious:  a  grade 
necessitating  much  pulling  by  the  engine 
driving  wheels,  and  consequent  heavy 
wear  on  the  crossing,  which  is  liable  to 
break  or  be  twisted  out  of  line.  The  origi- 
nal manner  of  making  a  crossing  was  sim- 
ply to  use  rails  bent  to  the  proper  shape. 
These  were  succeeded  by  four  heavy  cast- 
ings heavily  plated  with  steel,  and  made 
to  fit  one  in  each  corner  or  intersection 
of  the  rails.  Afterwards  a  design  was 
used  in  which  the  rails  were  riveted  to  an 
iron  plate  which  was  first  grooved  by  a 
planer,  and  strips  of  rubber  inserted  under 
the  base  of  the  rail,  this  was  intended  to 
give  elasticity  to  the  crossing.  This  in 
turn  was  succeeded  by  a  CROSSING  MADE 


208  THE   RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

OF  STEEL  RAILS,  firmly  secured  in  position 
by  bolts  and  fish  plates  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  make  the  crossing  virtually  one 
piece,  and  gave  great  strength  and  re- 
sistance to  strains  in  every  direction. 
The  parts  of  the  crossing  are  made  inter- 
changeable, and  can  be  easily  replaced  if 
by  accident  they  become  broken.  The 
cost  of  a  steel  rail  crossing  complete,  of 
any  angle  from  20°  to  90°  inclusive,  is 
about  $300.  "When  laying  it  in  posi- 
tion care  should  be  taken  to  lay  it  on 
good  heavy  oak  stringers,  14"  x  16",  or 
even  heavier,  framed  to  suit  the  angle  of 
the  crossing,  and  laid  on  a  bed  of  broken 
stone  at  least  18"  in  depth,  and  the  ground 
should  be  carefully  drained  from  the 
centre  to  the  four  corners  by  drains  filled 
with  broken  stone,  and  care  taken  to 
prevent  any  water  lodging  under  the 
stringers.  Many  roadmasters  prefer  lay- 
ing crossings  on  sills,  owing  no  doubt  to 
the  ease  of  ballasting  and  lining  up  the 
track,  but  this  does  not  balance  the  good 


209 


210  THE   RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

result  contained  in  a  solid  even  bearing 
given  by  the  stringers  in  which  every 
inch  of  the  rails  is  supported  throughout 
their  entire  length.  Another  reason  for 
not  laying  a  crossing  on  sills  is  the 
danger  of  the  crossing  being  broken  in 
case  the  foundation  of  ballasting  should 
give  way  under  any  one  of  them  owing 
to  the  action  of  frost  or  of  a  heavy 
rain.  Stringers  will,  however,  stand  firm 
even  on  very  treacherous  ground.  The 
writer  has  had  an  extended  and  varied 
experience  in  constructing  and  laying 
crossings,  which  has  only  served  to  prove 
the  foregoing  remarks.  Tha  cost  of  pro- 
perly laying  a  crossing,  including  the 
stringers,  need  not  exceed  $50.  When 
ordering  a  crossing  from  the  manufac- 
turer the  order  should  state  the  angle  of 
intersection,  section  of  rail  to  be  used, 
gauge  of  both  roads,  and,  if  double  track, 
the  distance  between  tracks. 

SIGNALS  are  used  on  railroads  to  notify 
the  engineer  of  an  engine  of  the  position 


FROGS   AND   SWITCHES.  211 

of  switches,  the  proximity  of  depots  or 
stopping  places,  or  of  any  reasons  why  the 
engine  should  proceed  or  stop.  Switch 
signals  are  usually  made  with  the  stand  of 
the  switches,  and  are  called  targets,  the 
switch  being  altered  or  changed  in  any 
direction  shows  a  corresponding  change 
in  the  position  of  the  target,  which  being 
placed  at  some  elevation  above  the  rails 
is  easily  seen  by  the  engineer,  and  shows 
him  how  the  switch  is  set.  A  FIXED  SIG- 
NAL is  a  vertical  post  planted  alongside 
the  track,  and  by  means  of  movable  arms 
operated  in  a  great  many  different  ways, 
the  engineer  is  notified  how  to  proceed 
with  his  engine  and  train.  It  is  not  within 
the  field  covered  by  this  work,  or  a  de- 
tailed description  of  signals  would  be 
given.  The  subject  admits  of  an  extended 
description.  A  brief  mention  of  the  sub- 
ject is  made  simply  because  calculations 
regarding  the  cost  of  building  and  ope- 
rating a  railroad  necessarily  involve  sig- 
nals. The  arms  of  a  fixed  signal  are 


212  THE   RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

usually  painted  red,  blue,  and  white, 
signifying,  first — Red:  "Danger,  stop!" 
Blue:  "Caution,  proceed  slowly."  White: 
"All  right,  go  ahead."  With  the  excep- 
tion of  using  green  for  blue,  this  is  the 
general  interpretation  of  the  colors.  In 
placing  fixed  signals  it  is  necessary  to  do 
so  with  a  view  to  having  a  good  back- 
ground— the  sky  is  the  best — but  some- 
times trees  or  a  deep  cutting  will  prevent 
this,  in  which  case  an  artificial  back- 
ground of  boards  painted  white,  or  the 
rocks  of  a  cutting,  or  the  abutment  of  a 
bridge  whitewashed,  will  tend  to  show 
the  arms  of  a  signal  distinctly.  On  the 
Philadelphia  and  Eeading  Eailroad  SMALL 
TOWERS  are  erected  for.  signals  at  every 
sharp  curve  on  the  road,  and  at  the  ap- 
proach to  stations.  These  towers  are 
placed  high  up  in  elevated  positions 
near  the  track.  A  man  is  stationed  in 
each  tower,  who  closely  watches  the  track 
which,  from  his  elevated  position,  can  be 
seen  for  some  distance,  and  by  turning  a 


FROGS   AND   SWITCHES.  213 

red,  blue,  or  white  board  against  the  ap- 
proaching train,  he  notifies  the  locomotive 
engineer  how  to  proceed.  At  night  the 
painted  boards  are  replaced  by  colored 
lights. 

Another  class  of  signals,  for  use  in 
foggy  weather,  or  in  case  the  track  is 
obstructed  at  points  not  guarded  by  fixed 
signals,  consists  of  small,  flat,  tin  boxes 
containing  powder  and  percussion  caps. 
These  little  boxes  are  fastened  to  the  rail 
by  lead  strips,  and  when  the  engine  passes 
over  them  they  explode  with  a  loud  re- 
port, promptly  warning  the  engineer  of 
"  danger  ahead !"  The  interlocking  signals 
are  too  complicated  to  explain  in  detail, 
nor  could  the  system  be  readily  under- 
stood without  diagrams  and  illustrations, 
which  cannot  be  given  in  this  work. 
The  principle  of  INTERLOCKING  SIGNALS  is 
briefly  defined  by  Barry :  "  If  a  man  were 
to  go  blindfold  into  a  signal  box  with  an 
interlocking  apparatus,  he  might,  so  far 
as  accordance  between  points  (switches) 


214  THE    RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

and  signals  is  concerned,  be  allowed  with 
safety  to  pull  over  any  lever  at  random. 
He  might  doubtless  delay  the  traffic,  be- 
cause he  might  not  know  which  signal  to 
lower  for  a  particular  train,  but  he  could 
not  lower  such  a  signal  or  produce  such 
a  combination  of  position  of  points 
(switches)  and  signals  as  would,  if  the 
signals  were  obeyed,  produce  a  collision." 
Saxby  and  Farmer's  system  of  inter- 
locking signals  is  probably  the  best  in 
use.  THE  BLOCK  SYSTEM  of  signals  is 
briefly  illustrated  as  follows  : — 

Suppose  a  line  of  railway  to  be  divided 
off  into  a  certain  number  of  districts  by 
telegraphic  stations,  for  example,  a  line 
divided  into  three  stations,  calling  the 
stations  A,  B,  and  C,  points  where  three 
signal  boxes  are  established.  A  train 
leaves  A,  and  at  the  same  time  B  is  noti- 
fied of  the  fact  by  means  of  the  telegraph  ; 
B  answers  back  to  A,  "  All  right,  send 
the  train,"  and  also  notifies  A  not  to  send 
any  more  trains  until  further  orders ;  the 


I 

I 

8, 


— ® 


215 


216  THE    EAILWAY   BUILDER. 

line  is  then  "blocked"  until  the  train 
arrives  at  B,  that  is,  no  other  trains  can 
run  from  A  to  B  until  its  arrival ;  as  soon 
as  it  arrives  at  B,  the  agent  at  that  point 
notifies  A  of  the  fact,  and  "raises  the 
block"  between  A  and  B,  leaving  the  line 
clear.  In  the  same  manner  the  train 
proceeds  from  B  to  C,  and  so  on  through 
each  district  until  it  has  reached  its  ob- 
jective point.  The  safety  and  security 
of  the  block  system  is  obvious — for  sup- 
posing a  train  should  break  down  or 
become  disabled  in  any  of  the  districts, 
say  between  B  and  C,  then  the  "  block" 
is  continued  at  B,  and  no  train  can  pass 
beyond  B  until  the  block  is  raised  by  C, 
which  cannot  be  done  until  the  disabled 
train  has  reached  that  point.  This  is  the 
principle  of  the  "  block  system,"  and  is 
involved  in  all  the  improvements  which 
have  been  made  on  it.  If  strictly  adhered 
to  no  collision  can  possibly  take  place,  as 
a  space  is  always  preserved  between  each 
train  equal  to  the  length  of  each  district. 


CHAPTEE  VI. 

EQUIPMENT. 

IN  the  earlier  history  of  railways,  horses 
were  used  to  pull  the  cars  which  ran  on 
tramways  constructed  of  wood.  In  the 
year  1767,  iron  was  substituted  for  wopd. 
In  1802  Messrs.  Trevithick  and  Vivian 
patented  a  plan  for  a  locomotive,  which 
ten  years  afterwards  was  put  into  opera- 
tion. In  1811,  a  patent  was  taken  out 
by  John  Blenkinsop,  of  Middleton,  York- 
shire, England;  for  certain  mechanical 
means  by  which  the  conveyance  of  coal 
and  other  articles  was  facilitated,  and  the 
expense  attending  the  conveyance  of  the 
same  was  rendered  less  than  before.  It 
consisted  in  the  application  of  a  racked 
or  toothed  rail  on  one  side  of  the  road 
from  end  to  end  ;  into  this  rack  a  toothed 
wheel  was  worked  by  the  steam  engine, 

217 


218  THE    RAILWAY    BUILDER. 

the  revolutions  of  which  produced  the 
necessary  motion  without  being  liable  to 
slip  in  descending  steep  inclined  planes. 
Several  of  the  engines  were  made  in  the 
years  1812  and  1813,  but  in  the  year  1814 
the  rack  rail  was  abandoned,  as  it  was 
found  by  Geo.  Stevenson  that  the  wheels 
adhered  to  the  track  sufficiently  to  do  the 
work  without  it.  The  Liverpool  and 
Manchester  Eailway  was  commenced  in 
the  year  1826,  under  the  direction  of 
Geo.  Stevenson  as  Engineer.  After  ma- 
ture deliberation  the  managment  de- 
termined to  have  locomotive  in  preference 
to  fixed  engines  for  motive  power,  provi- 
ded the  former  could  be  made  sufficiently 
powerful,  and  that  the  weight  were  not 
so  great  as  to  injure  the  rails  ;  also,  ones 
that  would  not  emit  smoke.  In  1829  a 
reward  was  offered  for  the  best  engine 
under  the  following  conditions,  viz.,  to 
consume  its  own  smoke,  to  draw  three 
times  its  own  weight  at  10  miles  an  hour, 
with  not  over  50  Ibs.  pressure  of  steam 


219 


220  THE   RAILWAY    BUILDER. 

on  the  boiler ;  to  have  two  safety  valves 
(one  locked),  the  boiler  to  be  supported 
on  springs,  and  to  rest  on  six  wheels  if  it 
weighed  more  than  four  and  one -half 
tons:  height  to  top  of  chimney,  not  over 
fifteen  feet ;  weight,  with  water  in  boiler, 
not  to  exceed  six  tons  (less  preferred) ; 
boiler  proved  to  three  times  the  working 
pressure,  and  not  to  cost  more  than  £550. 
This  competitive  trial  resulted  in  the 
success  of  the  "Rocket,"  and  the  prize  of 
£500  was  awarded  to  Geo.  Stevenson. 
The  superiority  of  the  "Rocket"  was  due 
in  a  great  measure  to  the  boiler  having 
small  tubes,  and  to  the  blast  from  the  ex- 
haust steam  enabling  the  engine  to  gene- 
rate steam  as  fast  as  required.  It  is  claimed 
that  the  flue  boiler  was  suggested  by 
Henry  Booth,  the  treasurer  of  the  com- 
pany. From  other  information  it  ap- 
pears that  the  tubular  system  of  boilers 
was  invented  in  both  England  and 
France  at  the  same  time.  In  1835  Robert 
Stevenson  took  out  a  patent  for  leaving 


221 


222  THE   RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

off  the  flanges  of  the  driving  wheels,  and 
using  flanges  on  the  leading  and  trail- 
ing wheels  only.  Eichard  Trevithick 
claims  to  have  invented  the  steam  blast, 
but  the  claim  has  been  disputed  by 
George  Stevenson  and  Timothy  Hack- 
worth.  India-rubber  springs  for  sustain- 
ing the  weight  of  locomotives  were  pat- 
ented by  the  Earl  of  Dundonald,  in  1835. 
The  history  of  the  locomotive  is  an 
exceedingly  short  one,  but  rapid  strides 
have  been  made  towards  perfection  in 
its  construction,  and  particularly  by 
American  manufacturers.  The  total 
number  of  locomotives  in  use  in  this 
country  in  the  year  1895  was  about 
37,000,  and  this  great  motive  power 
has  been  created  within  a  few  years. 
The  subject  is  an  important  one,  and 
every  railroad  man  should  be  familiar 
with  the  lever  which  operates  his  road. 
The  cost  of  a  first-class  passenger  loco- 
motive of  the  "  American"  pattern,  as 


EQUIPMENT. 


223 


built  by  the  Baldwin  Locomotive  Works 
of  Philadelphia,  ranges  from  $7000  to 
$8000,  supposing  the  road  to  be  of  the 
ordinary  gauge  of  4'  8J".  The  follow- 
ing dimensions  of  this  style  of  locomo- 
tive are  reliable. 


AMERICA." 


Number  of  driving  wheels,          .         .  4 

"      front  truck  wheels     .         .  4 

"      back     "  "  None. 

Total  wheel  base        .         .         .         .21'  9" 

Between  centres  of  front  and  back  driv- 
ing wheels 96  inches. 

Total  weight  of  locomotive,  working 

order 65,0001bs. 

Total  weight  on  driving  wheels  .         .  42.0001bs. 

Diameter  of  driving  wheels          .         .  60£  inches. 

11         truck          "  .         .  28       " 

"        cylinders          .         .         .  16       " 


224 


THE    RAILWAY   BUILDER. 


Stroke  of  cylinders     .         .  .  24  inches. 

Outside  diameter  of  smallest  boiler  ring  48       ' ' 

Size  of  grate        .         .         .         .         .  65"x34£" 

Number  of  tubes          ....  144 

Diameter  of  tubes        ....  2  inches. 

Length  of  tubes 10ft.  11  in. 

Square  feet  of  grate  surface         .         .  15.5 

"  "       heating  surface  in  fire 

box          ...  100.6 

"  "       heating  surface  in  tubes  825.4 

Total  feet  of  heating  surface        .         .  926.0 

Exhaust  nozzles  (single  or  double)     .  Double. 

Diameter  of  nozzles     ....  2|-3^  in. 

Size  of  steam  ports      .         .         .         .  1^X15  " 

"      exhaust  ports  .         .         .2^x15" 

Throw  of  eccentrics   ;Y        . —  .         .  5£  inches. 

Outside  lap  of  valve   .         .         .         .  f  inch. 

Inside         "       "         .         .         .  -fa   " 

Size  of  main  driving  axle  journal        .  7"  dia.  X8" 

"     other       "  "         "  .  7"dia.x8" 

"     truck  axle  journal  .         .         .  4£x7£in. 

Diameter  of  pump  plunger          .         .  2  inches. 

Stroke  of  pump  plunger     .         .         .  24     " 

Capacity  of  tank         ....  2000  gall. 

The  style  known  as  the  "Mogul"  is 
used  for  freight  purposes,  and  its  cost 
ranges  from  $8000  to  $9000. 

The  following  are  the  principal  dimen- 
sions : — 


MOGUL. 


Gauge  of  road 4'  8£" 

Number  of  driving  wheels  .         .         .6 

"          front  truck  wheels     .         .  2 
Total  wheel  base         .         .         .         .22'  8" 
Distance  between  centres  of  front  and 

back  driving  wheels         .         .         .96  inches. 

Total  weight  of  locomotive  .         .         .  77,0001bs. 

"  on  driving  wheels  .         .  66,000  " 

Diameter  of  driving  wheels         .         .  52  inches. 

"        of  truck  wheels  .         .         .  30      " 

"       of  cylinders          .         .         .  18      " 

Stroke  of  cylinders     .         .         .         .  24      " 
Outside   diameter   of   smallest   boiler 

ring 50      " 

Size  of  grate 66"x34£" 

Number  of  tubes         ....  161 

Diameter  of  tubes       .         ...  2  inches. 

Length  of  tubes 11'  3" 

Square  feet  of  grate  surface         .         .  16'  U 
"         "     of  heating  surface  in  fire 

box       ....  102.7 
15 


226 


THE    RAILWAY   BUILDER. 


Square  feet  of  heating  surface  in  tubes 
Total  square  feet  of  heating  surface  . 
Exhaust  nozzles  .... 

Diameter  of  nozzles  .  .  .  . 
Size  of  steam  ports  .  .  .  . 

"  exhaust  ports  .  .  . 

Throw  of  eccentrics  .  .  .  . 
Outside  lap  of  valve  .  .  .  . 
Inside  "".... 
Size  of  main  driving  axle  journal  . 

"     other         "         "         "  . 

"     truck         "         "         "  . 

"  pump  plunger  .  . 

Stroke  of  pump  plunger  .  .  . 
Capacity  of  tank  .... 


948.0 
1051.0 
Double. 
3"  to  3 


inches. 


7"  to  8" 
7"  to  8" 
5"  to  8" 
2  inches. 
24     " 
2200  galls. 


The  third  style  of  engine,  also  a  freight 
engine,  is  called  the  "  Consolidation."  The 
following  dimensions  of  this  class  of  loco- 
motives is  from  the  Danforth  Locomo- 
tive Works,  Paterson,  New  Jersey.  The 
cost  of  this  locomotive  will  range  from 
$9000  to  $10,000  for  standard  (4r  8J") 
gauge. 


EQUIPMENT. 


227 


CONSOLIDATION.' 


Gauge  of  road    .  .         .         .     4'  8£" 

Number  of  driving  wheels  .         .         .8 
"      front  truck  wheels     .         .     2 
Total  wheel  base        .         .         .         .23'  2" 
Distance  between  centres  of  front  and 

back  driving  wheels         .         .         .     15'  7;/ 
Total  weight  of  locomotive  .         .         .     96,550  Ibs. 

"         "       on  driving  wheels  .         .     86,430  " 
Diameter  of  driving  wheels         .         .     4'  2" 
"        truck  wheels  .  .     2'  7" 

11  cylinders  .  .  .  20" 
Stroke  of  cylinders  .  .  .  .24" 
Outside  diameter  of  smallest  boiler 

ring 4'  2" 

Size  of  grate 120"x34f" 

Number  of  tubes  .  .  .  .165 
Diameter  of  tubes  ....  2j" 
Length  of  tubes  .  .  .  .13'  9V 

Square  feet  of  grate  surface         .         .     29 
heating  surface,  fire  box   139 

"        "  "        tubes      1370 


228  THE   RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

Total  feet  of  heating  surface       .         .  1509 

Exhaust  nozzle Double. 

Diameter  of  nozzle      ....  3£" 

Size  of  steam  ports      ....  l|"Xl5£" 

"     exhaust  port   ....  2f"xl5£" 

Throw  of  eccentrics    ....  5£" 

Outside  lap  of  valve    .         .         .         .  f  " 

Inside        "         "       .         .         .         .  None. 

Size  of  main  axle  journal    .         .         .  6f  " 

"     other  driving  axle  journal        .  6f" 
"     truck  axle  journal  .         .         .5" 

Diameter  of  pump  plunger          .         .  2|" 
Stroke  of  pump  plunger      .         .         .24" 

Capacity  of  tank         ....  2400  galls. 

The  "Bicycle"  engine  used  on  the 
Philadelphia  and  Reading  Railway  has 
the  following  dimensions : 

Gauge 4'8J" 

Diameter  of  high-pressure  cylinders  .  13" 

"        low          "  "        .  22" 

Stroke  of  high-pressure  cylinders       .  26" 

"        low         "  "  .  26" 

Diameter  of  driving  wheels        .        .  84J" 
Wheel  hase  of  engine        .        .        .22'  9" 

Weight  of  engine  in  working  order  .  115,000  Ibs. 
"      on  driving  wheels          .         .       48,000   " 

Diameter  of  boiler     ....  56" 

Length  of  fire  box,  Wootten  pattern  .  114" 


EQUIPMENT.  229 

Width  of  fire  box,  Wootten  pattern  .  96" 
Heating  surface  of  combustion  cham- 
ber         .         .         .         .         .         .  45  sq.  ft. 

Heating  surface  of  fire  box         .         .  128      " 

"              "        tubes    .        .        .  1293      « 

Total  heating  surface          .         .         .  1466      " 

Capacity  of  tender    ....  4000  galls. 


Regarding  the  other  dimensions,  the 
height  of  the  stack  is  usually  from  13  to 
15  feet  above  the  rails.  The  tenders  of 
engines  will  weigh  about  6  tons  empty, 
and  about  15  tons  full  of  water  and  fuel. 
Width  of  tender  9  feet,  and  length  about 
the  same  as  the  engine.  The  price  given 
for  the  locomotive  is  supposed  to  include 
the  tender. 

The  size  of  American  locomotives  has 
steadily  increased  with  no  apparent  limit 
in  view.  The  decapod  engines,  with  10 
driving  wheels,  weigh  as  much  as  148,- 
000  pounds, — these  are  freight  engines. 
On  the  Erie  Railroad  are  some  eight- 
wheeled  passenger  locomotives  weigh- 
ing 115,000  pounds.  The  approximate 


230  THE   EAILWAY  BUILDER. 

price  of  any  locomotive  of  the  usual 
standard  sizes  may  be  estimated  at 
about  8  cents  per  pound  weight. 

THE  FIRST  RAILWAY  CAR  ever  used  for 
carrying  passengers  was  built  in  1825, 
and  was  run  on  the  Stockton  &  Darling- 
ton Railroad,  in  England.  It  was  simply 
a  common  box-car  made  of  wood,  with 
three  windows  on  each  side,  and  mounted 
on  four  fixed  wheels.  The  English  cars, 
even  at  the  present  day,  vary  but  little 
from  this  design ;  but  the  American  cars 
are  constructed  on  an  entirely  different 
principle,  having  two  swinging  or  bogie 
trucks  under  each  end.  AN  AMERICAN 
PASSENGER  CAR  measures  about  50  feet 
in  length  from  out  to  out  of  bumpers, 
with  an  extreme  width  of  about  10  feet. 
The  trucks  have  four,  six,  and  sometimes 
eight  wheels  each.  A  car  will  hold  60 
passengers  comfortably,  and  when  empty 
will  weigh  about  15  tons,  when  filled 
with  passengers,  about  19  tons. 


EQUIPMENT.  231 


Cost  of  a  Pennsylvania  Railroad  Pas- 
senger Car. 

The  following  table  gives  in  detail 
the  cost  of  constructing  one  first-class 
standard  passenger  car,  at  the  Altoona 
shops  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad,  the 
total  cost  being  $4423.75.  The  principal 
items  are  as  follows : — 

Labor $1263  94 

Proportion  of  fuel  and  stores    .         .         .  28  61 

2480  feet  poplar 86  80 

3434  feet  ash 127  08 

1100  feet  pine .         .         .         .      "   .         .  20  90 

2350  feet  of  yellow  pine  .         .         .         .  70  50 

500  feet  oak 10  00 

450  feet  hickory     .         .         .         .         .  13  50 

700  feet  Michigan  pine  .         .         .         .  49  00 

400  feet  cherry       .         . :       .         .         .  16  00 

439  feet  maple  veneer     .         .         .         .  24  14 

4  pairs  wheels  and  axles     .         .         .  332  85 

2  pairs  passenger  car  trucks,  complete  533  62 

13  gallons  varnish        .         .         .         .  5234 

45  Ibs.  glue 14  33 

2925  Ibs.  iron .  87  75 

792  Ibs.  castings 16  99 

Screws  51  88 


I- 

c 

£ 


EQUIPMENT. 


233 


Gas  regulator  and  gauge     .         .         .  25  25 

2  two-light  chandeliers        .         .         .  50  72 

2  gas  tanks 84  00 

1  air-brake,  complete.         .         .         .  131  79 

57  sash  balances 44  61 

61  lights  glass 65  83 

2  stoves 77  56 

25  sets  seat  fixtures      .         .         .         .  50  50 

3  bronze  lamps   .         .         .         .         •  13  50 
2  bronze  door  locks  and  fittings  .         .  15  20 
Butts  and  hinges         .         .         .         .  15  58 

13  basket  racks 77  35 

12  sash  levers 42  00 

61  bronze  window  lifts          .         .         .  24  40 

61  window  fasteners     .         .         .         .  16  47 

238  sheets  tin 41  44 

273  Ibs.  galvanized  iron          .         .         .  25  31 

9 6  yards  scarlet  plush.         .         .         .  22887 

44  yards  green  plush    ....  109  99 

61  yards  sheeting         .         .         .         .  10  30 

243  Ibs.  hair 72  95 

12  springs 22  96 

12  spiral  elliptic  springs       .         .         .  20  29 

1  head  lining 80  63 

2  packets  gold  leaf     .         .         .         .  14  58 
Various  small  items         .         .         .         .  261  44 

.$4423  75 

At   present  there   are   about  28,000 
passenger  cars  in  use  on  the  railways 


g) 

•3, 

I 


234 


EQUIPMENT.  235 

of  the  United   States,  and  about  8000 
of  baggage,  mail,  and  express  cars. 

SLEEPING  CARS  are  about  the  same 
size  as  ordinary  ones,  but  some  have 
been  constructed  70  feet  long  by  11  feet 
in  width,  and  weighing  about  33  tons 
when  empty.  Ordinary  passenger  cars 
cost  from  $4000  to  $5000  apiece,  and 
sleeping  cars  from  $6000  to  $20,000 
apiece.  Other  "  special"  cars  are  used 
for  various  purposes.  A  modern  special 
train  can  now  be  found  on  nearly  every 
trunk-line  in  America.  It  consists  of 
cars  having  every  convenience,  includ- 
ing a  composite  car,  with  electrical 
dynamo  and  engine,  a  barber-shop,  and 
bath-room;  a  dining-,  sleeping-,  draw- 
ing-room, library,  and  observation  car, 
— all  vestibuled  together  and  practically 
continuous.  A  mail  or  baggage  car  of 
about  the  same  dimensions  as  a  pas- 
senger car  will  cost  from  $1500  to  $2500 
each.  FREIGHT  BOX-CARS  measuring  30 
feet  in  length  and  9  feet  in  width,  with 


236  THE   RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

8  wheels,  will  weigh  about  8  tons,  and 
cost  about  $500  each.  Platform  or  GON- 
DOLA CARS  of  the  same  dimensions  weigh 
about  7  tons,  and  cost  about  $350  each. 
The  total  number  of  freight  cars  in  use 
on  our  railways  is  now  about  1,230,000. 

Average  Weight  of  Cars. 

4  ft.  8|  in.  gauge,  as  in  use  on  principal  railways 

in  the  Uuited  States. 

Weight. 

Baggage  car,  36  feet  out  to  out,  28,000  Ibs. 

Mail  "     "         "  "  32,000  " 

Passenger  "48        "  "     37,000  to  39,000  " 

Sleeping     "     "        "  "     41,000  to  44,000  " 

Stock          "     "        "  "     17,500  to  18,500  " 

Box,  "     "        "  "     16,400  to  17,800  " 

Flat  "    32  feet  long,  16,500  " 

8-wheeled  coal  cars,  13,440  " 

4         i«  ((  6)720  <c 

Iron  trucks  for  passenger  cars,  16,000  " 

Wooden  trucks  for  passenger  cars,  14,000  " 

Passenger  car  axles,  of  iron,  330  " 

*              "                 steel,  320  " 

Freight          "                 iron,  300  " 

A  freight  car  will  carry  from  15  to  25 
tons  of  weight.    Coal  cars  usually  carry 


238 


THE   RAILWAY    BUILDER. 


about  5  tons  of  coal  for  the  smaller,  and 
25  for  the  larger  cars. 


Weights  of  Substances. 


Salt 


Cement 
Water 
Oil       . 
Alcohol 

Turpentine  (spirits) 
Powder 

Coal,  anthracite  . 
' '     bituminous 
Coke  . 

Charcoal  (hard)  . 
Asphaltum . 
Gutta  percha 
India-rubber 
Ivory  . 

Pitch  ... 
Rosin  . 

Tar  .  .  .:  ! 
Sand  .  .  .  ; 
Slate  . 


When  the  weights  of  articles  of  freight 
are  not  given,  the  above  weights  are  es- 
tablished by  railroad  agents. 


bushel 

80 

Ib 

barrel 

280 

" 

" 

300 

" 

gallon 

8.33 

" 

« 

6.96 

« 

" 

7.31 

(( 

keg 

25 

(( 

bushel 

86 

tt 

tt 

80 

« 

» 

32 

" 

tt 

30 

<( 

c.  foot 

56 

« 

" 

61 

It 

(i 

60 

" 

« 

112 

« 

(( 

71 

it 

" 

68 

tt 

(I 

62 

it 

" 

120 

" 

tt 

175 

u 

EQUIPMENT.  239 

A  cubic  yard  of  sand  weighs  about  30  cwt. 

gravel  "  "  30  " 

mud  "  "  25  " 

sandstone    "  "  39  " 

shale  "  "  40  " 

granite  "  "  42  " 

slate  "  "  43  " 

COAL  CARS  having  only  four  wheels 
weigh  about  3  tons,  measure  about  12 
feet  long  by  6  feet  wide,  cost  about 
$180  each,  and  will  carry  about  5  tons 
of  coal.  The  maximum  load  for  the 
foregoing  freight  cars,  with  eight  wheels, 
is  30  tons.  Recently  these  cars  have 
been  constructed  of  steel,  weighing 
about  40,000  pounds,  with  a  capacity  of 
100,000  pounds  of  coal.  THE  WHEELS 
for  passenger  and  freight  cars  are  usu- 
ally from  30  to  33  inches  in  diame- 
ter; lately  larger  diameters  have  been 
strongly  advocated,  and  wheels  have 
been  made  measuring  42  inches  in  di- 
ameter. In  America  the  car  wheels 
are  usually  made  of  cast-iron  in  one 
piece,  and  the  tire  is  united  to  the 
hub  with  a  disk  or  plate.  Some  are 


240  THE   RAILWAY    BUILDER. 

made  with  single,  and  others  with  double 
plates,  and  still  others  with  spokes  similar 
to  a  driving-wheel.  The  tread  of  the 
wheel  is  hardened  by  a  process  called 
chilling.  This  is  done  by  pouring  the 
melted  cast-iron  into  a  mould  of  the  form 
of  the  tread  of  the  wheel.  The  mould  is 
also  made  of  cast-iron,  but  being  cold 
cools  the  melted  iron  very  suddenly,  and 
thus  hardens  it  somewhat  as  steel  is 
hardened  when  it  is  heated  and  plunged 
into  cold  water.  Only  certain  kinds  of 
cast-iron  will  harden  in  this  way — the 
cause  is  not  known. 

The  manufacture  of  these  wheels  is 
an  industry  requiring  long  experience 
and  nice  judgment;  not  only  as  to  the 
character  of  the  irons  used,  but  also 
regarding  their  combination,  so  as  to 
secure  all  the  qualities  required  in  the 
product. 

All  kinds  of  chilled  cast  car  wheels  are 
embraced  in  the  following  forms,  viz. : 
double  plate,  single  plate,  and  spoke, 


Section  of  double-plate  wheel. 


16  241 


242  THE   RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

which  are  varied  in  numerous  ways  to 
carry  out  the  views  of  the  makers. 
While  much  depends  on  the  form  of  the 
pattern  for  securing  an  even  depth  of 
chill  on  the  tread,  freedom  from  strain, 
and  a  maximum  strength  for  the  weight 
of  iron  used,  much  more  depends  upon 
the  proper  selection  and  manipulation  of 
the  iron  to  be  used.  Charcoal  pig  iron, 
possessing  the  greatest  strength  and  best 
chilling  properties,  is  exclusively  used  by 
all  first  class  manufacturers  of  wheels; 
while  the  anthracite  irons,  some  of  which 
also  chill,  are  used  to  a  large  extent  by 
makers  of  inferior  wheels.  The  wearing 
surface  or  tread  of  the  .wheel  is  chilled 
and  made  exceedingly  hard  by  running 
the  molten  metal  into  iron  moulds  which 
have  been  previously  turned  to  the  re- 
quired form.  To  make  a  good  wearing 
and  even  chill  is  the  great  desideratum. 
A  chill  of  moderate  depth,  say  J  of  an 
inch  to  f  of  an  inch,  is  sufficient  for 
service,  and,  if  tough  and  hard,  will  wear 


EQUIPMENT.  243 

better  than  double  that  depth.  A  chill 
should  be  bright  and  finely  grained,  or 
fibrous  looking,  gradually  merging  into 
the  gray  iron  back  of  it,  and,  if  solid  and 
hard,  the  wheel  will  often  stand  a  service 
of  100,000  miles  wear.  Some  kinds  of 
charcoal  iron  possess  great  strength  but 
with  a  limited  chilling  property,  while  in 
others  the  chill  is  very  marked,  but  in 
coarse  and  ragged  crystals.  In  fact  very 
few  charcoal  irons  can  be  found  which 
will,  by  themselves,  make  a  good  wheel. 
For  this  reason  all  wheel  founders  use  a 
mixture  of  different  irons  in  order  to  get 
the  required  qualities  of  the  several  kinds 
and  grades  of  iron  combined  in  the  wheel, 
but  in  nearly  every  case  the  mixture  is 
simply  made  in  charging  the  cupola,  and, 
as  some  iron  melts  more  rapidly  than 
others,  the  desired  result  is  not  obtained. 
At  the  foundry  of  a  chilled- wheel  works 
the  several  kinds  of  iron  are  not  only 
thoroughly  mixed  in  the  cupola,  but  care 
is  also  taken  that  those  irons  which  melt 


244  THE   RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

easily  are  charged  so  as  to  melt  at  the 
same  time  as  the  more  difficult.  Then  all 
iron  is  drawn  from  the  cupola  into  large 
reservoirs,  holding  from  15  to  25  tons 
each,  and  thoroughly  puddled  and  mixed 
before  and  during  the  pouring  of  the 
wheels,  and,  being  poured  at  the  highest 
possible  temperature,  results  in  smooth- 
ness of  tread  and  a  tough  chill  of  even 
depth,  having  also  strength  of  plate  and 
freedom  from  strain.  These  latter  quali- 
ties are  further  increased  by  annealing  for 
four  days  in  air  and  moisture-proof  pits, 
made  of  iron  cylinders  let  10  feet  into  the 
ground,  and  lined  with  fire  brick.  The 
wheels  are  then  taken  from  the  pit  and 
cleaned  with  wire  brushes,  after  which 
they  are  carefully  inspected,  and  are  ready 
for  sale. 

Cast-iron  wheels  weigh  as  follows : — 

Spoke        wheel,  14"  dia.  3"  tread,    90  Ibs. 

"  "  16     "  3         "      120    " 

Single  plate  "  18     "  3$       "      150    " 

"       "      "  20     "  3|       "      200    " 

«       u      «  24     "  3|       "      250    " 


EQUIPMENT.  245 

Double  plate  wheel,  26"  dia.  4f"  tread,  375  Ibs. 

«  «      {<  28     "  4|       "       415    " 

«  M      n  30     «  43       «       500    " 

«i  u      ic  33     u  43       cc       525    « 

For  tenders  and 

passenger  cars. 

"  "      "         33   dia.      4f       "       560    " 

"  "      "        42     "        4|       "       875    " 

CAR  WHEELS  ARE  WORTH  about  2.0 
cents  per  pound  of  weight,  and  will  run 
about  an  average  of  50,000  miles  before 
wearing  out ;  although  cast-iron  wheels 
have  shown  much  longer  service,  often 
twice  as  much  mileage.  About  70,000 
miles,  however,  is  considered  a  good 
mileage  for  a  cast-iron  wheel.  Cast- 
iron  wheels  with  STEEL  TIRES  are  often 
used  for  passenger  cars  and  locomotive 
tenders  and  trucks.  They  possess  an 
advantage  from  the  fact  that,  after  the 
tread  of  the  wheel  becomes  hollowed  out 
by  wear,  it  can  be  turned  off  on  a  lathe 
to  a  true  bearing.  An  elastic  steel- tired 
wheel,  invented  by  Anson  Atwood,  is 
constructed  with  hemp  packing  inserted 


246  THE   RAILWAY    BUILDER. 

between  the  body  of  the  wheel  and  the 
tire,  and  possesses  considerable  merit. 
One  of  these  wheels,  measuring  33"  dia- 
meter, was  run  under  a  Wagner  sleeping- 
car  somewhat  over  250,000  miles,  during 
two  years'  service,  in  which  time  the 
tire  was  turned  off  twice,  losing  one-half 
of  an  inch  of  its  diameter.  A  steel-tired 
wheel  is  worth  about  5  cents  per  pound. 

Table  of  Steel-tired  Wheels. 

33"  diameter,  4"  tread,  weighs  659  Ibs. 

33          "  4|       "  "        700     " 

30          "  4        "  "        585     " 

30           "  4f       "  "        615      « 

The  car,  engine  truck,  and  driving 
AXLES  require  especial  attention  in  pur- 
chasing— quality  being  of  greater  ac- 
count than  price.  As  made  at  the 
best  works,  they  meet  all  the  require- 
ments of  railroads.  They  are  ham- 
mered from  selected  scrap  wrought-iron, 
which  is  first  mechanically  cleaned  of 
rust,  thereby  securing  a  more  thorough 


247 


248  THE    KAILWAY   BUILDER. 

welding  in  the  subsequent  operation  of 
shingling,  faggoting,  and  swedging  into 
form;  the  journals  being  hammered  in 
to  secure  a  denser  and  harder  bearing 
surface.  Driving  axles  are  used  from  5 
inches  to  8  inches  in  diameter;  engine 
truck  axles,  from  4J  to  5J  inches  dia- 
meter ;  and  locomotive  tender  and  passen- 
ger and  freight  car  axles,  from  4  to  5 
inches  diameter,  and  having  a  length  of 
from  &  6"  to  8  feet.  The  concave  form 
of  axles,  which  can  only  be  obtained  by 
hammering,  is  preferable,  for,  by  distri- 
buting the  vibrations,  the  shoulder  of 
hub  seat  is  relieved  from  the  liability 
to  fracture.  Axles  made  of  old  rails  are 
very  inferior  in  quality,  and,  consequently, 
can  be  sold  very  cheap — at  about  2  cents 
per  pound — while  the  best  kind  of  ham- 
mered axles,  made  from  selected  scrap, 
are  worth  about  2 \  cents  per  pound.  The 
cores  of  the  wheels  are  reamed  out  by 
revolving  table  drills,  and  the  journals 
and  wheel  seats  of  the  axles  are  also 


Bolster  car  springs. 


249 


250  THE   RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

carefully  turned  off  on  a  lathe,  after  which 
the  wheels  are  pressed  on  to  the  axles  by 
a  hydraulic  machine  at  a  pressure  of  about 
30  tons  weight. 

WROUGHT-IRON  FRAMES  for  the  trucks 
of  cars  will  weigh  about  175  pounds  each, 
and  cost  about  5  cents  per  pound,  finished 
and  fitted  together.  There  are  two  frames 
to  each  truck,  these  two  constitute  a 
"set."  COUPLINGS  of  wrought  iron  are 
sold  by  the  pound,  and  vary  in  price 
according  to  the  market.  SPRINGS  are 
made  of  the  best  crucible  cast-steel,  and 
in  various  forms  and  shapes.  Springs 
made  of  round  steel,  and  of  spiral  shape, 
are  much  used,  and  cost  as  follows : — 

Buffer  or  draw  springs,  11  cents  per  Ib. 

Bolster  springs,  in  sets  of  4  springs,  $20  to  $30 
per  set. 

Equalizing  bars  springs,  in  sets  of  8  springs,  $30 
to  $35  per  set. 

If  it  be  required  to  arrest  the  speed 
of  a  train,  the  BRAKES  are  applied,  and 
the  train  is  stopped.  Various  kinds  of 


EQUIPMENT.  251 

brakes  have  been  in  use  both  in  this 
country  and  abroad,  differing  from  each 
other  in  the  construction,  but  generally 
alike  in  regard  to  the  kind  of  power 
employed  to  operate  them.  One  kind  of 
brake  is  known  as  the  SLIPPER  BRAKE, 
and  consists  of  a  contrivance  by  means 
of  which  friction  is  produced  between 
the  brake  block,  or  slipper,  and  the  rails. 
Another  brake  is  applied  directly  to  the 
wheels,  as  in  an  ordinary  road  wagon. 
Still  another  kind  is  a  clip  which  is  at- 
tached to  the  car,  and  by  means  of  screws 
and  levers  is  made  to  grip  the  rail  firmly 
between  the  arms  of  the  clip.  Again, 
there  are  brakes  operating  directly  on 
the  axle,  instead  of  the  tread  of  the  wheel ; 
but  the  usual  manner  of  operating  brakes 
is  by  the  strength  of  the  brakeman's 
arm  operating  a  set  of  levers,  which 
causes  the  brake  blocks  to  press  close  up 
against  the  tread  of  the  wheels,  and  so 
stops  their  motion.  This  manner  of 
braking  injures  the  wheels  to  a  great 


252  THE   RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

extent,  sometimes  by  locking  the  wheels 
so  that  they  remain  immovable,  and  slide 
along  the  rails,  making  flat  places  on  their 
periphery.  On  passsenger  trains,  how- 
ever, the  AUTOMATIC  OR  CONTINUOUS 
BRAKES  are  now  extensively  used,  which 
are  so  arranged  that  the  engine  driver 
can  apply  the  brakes  of  all  the  cars  simul- 
taneously; they  are  also  so  constructed 
that  should  the  cars  by  any  means  become 
uncoupled,  the  same  action  will  imme- 
diately apply  the  brakes  on  the  detached 
car,  and  so  arrest  its  motion.  THE  WEST- 
INGHOUSE  BRAKE  is  constructed  on  this 
principle,  and  so  is  the  LOUGHRIDGE. 
The  power  used  is  simply  compressed  air, 
which  is  conveyed  by  pipes  from  the 
receiver,  which  is  attached  to  the  loco- 
motive, to  every  car,  at  which  point  it 
enters  a  cylinder,  and,  operating  on  a 
piston  and  levers  connected  with  it,  so 
applies  the  brakes.  The  air  is  compressed 
by  means  of  a  steam  pump  on  the  engine, 
and  the  receiver  is  a  receptacle  for  the 


EQUIPMENT.  253 

compressed  air  until  it  is  required  to  use 
it.  Experiments  made  in  England  with 
the  Westinghouse  automatic  brake  re- 
sulted as  follows:  A  train  of  thirteen 
carriages,  travelling  at  the  rate  of  52 
miles  an  hour,  was  brought  to  a  full  stop 
in  19  seconds!  The  distance  run  from 
the  time  the  brakes  were  applied  until 
the  train  stopped  was  913  feet.  The 
time  formerly  required  to  stop  a  train  in 
England  by  hand  brakes,  train  running 
at  the  rate  of  49  J  miles  per  hour,  was 
from  60  to  90  seconds,  and  in  a  distance 
of  from  2000  to  4000  feet. 

LOUGHRIDGE  claims  the  best  stop  yet 
made,  in  a  trial  on  the  Baltimore  and 
Ohio  Railroad,  in  which  a  train  of  ten 
cars  travelling  at  the  rate  of  42T6^  miles 
per  hour  was  stopped  in  16  seconds  and 
after  running  only  587  feet  8  inches. 
The  cost  of  equipping  a  train  with  these 
brakes  is  comparatively  trifling  The 
railroad  companies  usually  pay  the  in- 
ventor for  the  right  to  use  the  brake  per 


254  THE   RAILWAY    BUILDER. 

mile  of  road,  or  per  car,  or  whatever  other 
form  of  royalty  they  choose  to  pay,  and 
then  make  the  brake  apparatus,  and  fit  it 
to  their  cars  in  their  own  shops.  Other 
brakes  operated  by  water,  or  by  creating 
a  vacuum,  are  in  occasional  use,  but  are 
inferior  to  either  of  the  above.  SMITH'S 
VACUUM  BRAKE,  however,  showed  very 
good  results  in  a  competitive  trial — Clark's 
"  hydraulic"  also. 

The  time  is  not  far  distant  when  all 
freight,  as  well  as  passenger,  cars  will 
be  equipped  with  the  air-brake.  Laws 
have  been  suggested  compelling  all  rail- 
roads to  adopt  this  very  practical  and 
useful  invention. 


CHAPTEE  VII. 
DEPOTS  AND  STRUCTURES. 

IT  is  highly  important  when  building  a 
railroad  to  consider  well  what  depot  fa- 
cilities are  necessary  to  accommodate  the 
business  of  the  road,  and  not  how  much 
money  can  be  wasted  in  a  ponderous  un- 
sightly pile  of  brick  and  stone,  oftentimes 
immeasurably  inconsistent  with  the  busi- 
ness to  be  transacted  therein.  PASSENGER 
STATIONS  should  be  made  with  a  view  to 
the  comfort  of  passengers.  The  tracks 
upon  which  the  trains  arrive  and  leave 
should  be  systematically  arranged  for 
"  outward  bound"  and  "  incoming"  trains, 
with  separate  and  distinct  platforms  and 
exits  for  each  class  of  passengers,  either 
those  arriving  or  departing.  A  cover- 
ing should  always  be  provided  amply 
large  enough  to  cover  the  standing 

255 


256  THE   RAILWAY    BUILDER. 

trains,  both  arriving  and  departing; 
under  this  same  covering,  sufficient 
offices  for  baggage,  waiting-rooms  for 
ladies  and  gentlemen,  and  a  well-ordered 
restaurant  should  be  provided.  The  cost 
of  such  a  depot  will,  of  course,  vary  con- 
siderably, so  much  in  fact  that  no  very 
near  estimate  can  be  given.  The  value 
of  the  property  not  being  taken  into  consid- 
eration, however,  the  building  itself  need 
not  cost  more  than  $10,000.  While  first 
operating  the  road,  more  attention  should 
be  given  to  the  improvement  of  the  road- 
bed than  to  the  depots,  but  at  all  times 
there  is  no  excuse  for  not  making  the 
passengers  comfortable  while  waiting  for 
arriving  or  departing  trains. 

In  the  construction  of  a  FREIGHT  DEPOT 
the  most  important  feature  is  to  consider 
the  easiest  possible  way  of  landing  and 
transferring  the  freight  which  is  to  pass 
through  it.  All  known  mechanical  con- 
trivances for  facilitating  the  handling  of 
the  particular  kind  of  freight  which  the 


DEPOTS   AND   STRUCTURES.          257 

road  is  intended  to  carry  should  be  care- 
fully examined  by  the  Engineer,  and  the 
merits  of  each  carefully  weighed  in  his 
mind  with  a  view  of  adopting  whatever 
may  be  of  value.  Sufficient  siding  room 
should  be  provided  for  empty  cars  wait- 
ing to  be  loaded,  and  these  sidings  should 
be  arranged  with  a  grade  descending  in 
the  direction  in  which  the  cars  are  to 
move,  so  that  the  men  employed  around 
the  building  can  easily  move  them  without 
the  expense  of  a  shifting  engine.  All  these 
little  details  must  be  thought  of  and  pro- 
vided, and  every  Engineer  will  have  to 
study  out  his  own  plan  of  a  freight  depot 
to  suit  his  own  particular  case.  WAY 
STATIONS,  as  a  rule,  need  only  be  small 
buildings  sufficiently  large  to  protect  the 
passengers  from  the  weather,  and  also  of 
sufficient  capacity  to  store  away  a  limited 
amount  of  freight.  It  is  quite  common 
to  have  a  building  for  a  way  station  so 
arranged  that  one-half  of  it  can  be  occu- 
pied by  the  station  agent  and  his  family, 
17 


258  THE    RAILWAY    BUILDER. 

leaving  the  other  half  for  depot  purposes ; 
such  a  building  need  not  cost  more  than 
from  $3000  to  $5000,  according  to  the 
style  in  which  it  is  built.  FLAG  STATIONS 
are  small  settlements  where  little  or  no 
freight  business  is  done,  and  where  the 
trains  do  not  stop  unless  they  are  sig- 
nalled by  a  flag  or  other  signal  to  do  so. 
They  are  simply  wooden  shelters  from 
the  weather,  often  having  only  three  sides 
inclosed,  the  fourth  being  left  open. 
Their  cost  should  be  about  $100.  A  fixed 
signal  is  usually  placed  at  a  convenient 
distance  from  the  .station,  so  that  it  can 
be  operated  by  the  passenger  wishing  to 
board  the  train,  providing  there  is  no 
station  agent  at  that  point,  in  which  case 
the  brakemen  of  the  train  lower  the  sig- 
nal again  before  the  train  moves  off.  A 
TURNTABLE  is  a  revolving  platform  for 
turning  locomotives  around  horizontally. 
Suppose,  for  example,  a  straight  piece 
of  track  with  the  terminal  ends  A  and  B : 
the  engine  starts  from  A  and  pulls  the 
train  to  B  ;  now,  in  order  to  run  the  en- 


259 


260  THE   RAILWAY    BUILDER. 

gine  back  to  A,  it  must  run  backwards 
or  else  be  turned  around  by  some  me- 
chanical means  ;  for  this  purpose  a  turn- 
table is  used.  Turntables  are  made  of 
wood  or  iron  and  in  every  variety  of  con- 
struction. A  wooden  one  is  not  so  ex- 
pensive as  iron,  but  is  not  so  desirable 
to  have.  A  good  wrought-iron  one  of 
50  feet  diameter,  to  carry  an  engine 
and  tender  weighing  133,000  pounds,  will 
cost  from  $900  to  $1000;  while  one 
45  feet  in  diameter  will  cost  from  $730 
to  $800  complete.  WATER  STATIONS  are 
placed  at  certain  points  along  the  line 
of  the  road  to  supply  the  engines  with 
water.  They  consist  of  small  frame 
structures  surmounted  by  a  tank  with  a 
capacity  of  from  5000  to  50,000  gallons 
of  water.  These  tanks  are  pumped  full 
of  water  by  steam  pumps,  hand  power, 
horse  power,  and  in  the  West  very  often 
windmills  are  used  for  this  purpose.  The 
tanks  are  built  circular  in  shape  or  often 
square,  and  are  used  as  reservoirs  for 
water,  being  always  kept  full.  The  water 


Cast-iron  water  column. 


261 


262  THE    RAILWAY    BUILDER. 

may  be  supplied  from  a  neighboring 
spring,  brook,  river,  or  a  well  can  be  dug 
and  the  water  drawn  from  that  to  fill  the 
tank  with.  The  cost  of  a  circular  tank 
capable  of  holding  about  25,000  gallons 
of  water  will  be  about  $300  put  into 
position.  Steam  is  generally  used  for 
roads  doing  a  large  business.  A  good 
steam  pump  with  boiler  attachments 
complete,  ready  for  work,  can  be  estima- 
ted at  about  $500.  A  cast-iron  stand 
which  is  connected  with  pipes  to  the 
reservoir  or  tank  is  placed  alongside  the 
rails,  and  in  such  a  manner  that  a  canvas 
hose  conveys  the  water  from  it  into  the 
tank  of  the  locomotive ;  the  flow  of  water 
being  regulated  by  a  lever  operated  by 
the  fireman  of  the  locomotive.  Many  of 
the  fast  trains  on  the  Pennsylvania  E.  K. 
do  not  stop  to  take  water,  but  from  a 
long  tank  placed  between  the  rails,  which 
is  kept  filled  with  water,  the  Engineer, 
letting  down  a  scoop  from  the  locomo- 
tive, scoops  up  the  water  while  the 
train  is  in  motion.  Kegarding  the  FUEL 


DEPOTS   AND   STRUCTURES.          263 

for  locomotives,  the  reports  are  very 
conflicting  as  to  the  superiority  of  one 
kind  over  another.  Wood,  bituminous 
coal,  and  anthracite  coal  are  used,  and 
each  is  strongly  advocated  by  the  road 
using  that  particular  kind.  On  the 
Philadelphia  and  Eeading  Eailroad,  a 
passenger  engine  drawing  a  train  of  five 
cars  consumes  about  1 J  tons  of  anthracite 
coal  in  100  miles  running.  The  freight 
engines  use  about  3J  tons  in  the  same 
distance,  and  the  heavy  coal  engines  con- 
sume about  4J  tons.  On  the  Baltimore 
and  Ohio  Eailroad  a  passenger  engine 
drawing  five  coaches  consumes  only  1  ton 
of  Cumberland  bituminous  coal  in  a  dis- 
tance of  100  miles,  and  the  freight  engines 
consume  about  3  tons.  On  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Eailroad  the  passenger  engines  con- 
sume about  1J  tons  of  bituminous  coal 
every  100  miles  of  "run"  made.  Wood 
burning  engines  will  consume  alout  2J 
cords  of  wood  every  100  miles.  A  cord 
of  wood  is  4  x  4  x  8  feet,  or  128  cubic  feet. 
A  ton  of  anthracite  coal  is  40  cubic  feet. 


264 


THE    KAILWAY   BUILDER. 


Properties  of  Fuel. 


gy 

a" 

•  "3 

i  o 

8! 

o 

«  3 

i'S 

1 

2 

t-  O 

«S 

0$      • 

3 

GO 

Kind  of  fuel. 

1- 

O 

O  £J 

!«2 

1 

1 

ss 

« 

ll 

'^<S 

|| 

yO      t-< 

£ 

si 

O 

Bituminous  coal  

7  to    9 

80 

265 

50 

44 

Anthracite  

8  to  10 

92 

282 

54 

40 

Coke 

8  to  10 

86 

245 

31 

72 

"  Natural  Virginia 

8  to    9 

80 

260 

48 

48 

"  Cumberland  

8  to  10 

80 

250 

32 

70 

Charcoal    

5  to    6 

96 

265 

24 

104 

Dry  wood  

4  to    5 

44 

147 

20 

100 

Wood,  20  p.  ct.  water 

4 

34 

115 

25 

100 

Turf,  dry  (peat)  

6 

51 

165 

28 

80 

Turf,  20  per  ct.  water 

5 

40 

132 

30 

75 

Illuminating  gas  

13.8 

... 

194 

0.37 

29,800 

Oil,  wax,  tallow  

14 

71 

200 

59 

37 

Alcohol 

9.56 

58 

154 

52 

42 

Stationary  engines  use  3  to  7  pounds  of  coal  per 
horse-power  per  hour. 

Locomotive  passenger  engines  25  to  30  pounds 
coal  per  mile. 

Locomotive  freight  engines,  45  to  55  pounds  coal 
per  mile. 

Wood-burning  locomotives,  1  cord  of  wood  to  40 
miles. 


DEPOTS   AND   STRUCTUKES.          265 

Bulk  of  wood  about  6  times  as  much  as  an  equi- 
valent of  coal. 

At  certain  points  on  a  long  road,  or  at 
the  terminal  station  of  a  short  road,  a 
COALING  PLATFOKM  must  be  erected  in 
order  to  supply  the  engines  with  coal. 
These  platforms  are  so  arranged  that 
coal  can  be  conveniently  hauled  on  to 
them  and  stored  there ;  when  an  engine 
is  to  be  supplied,  the  coal  is  dropped 
through  shutes  from  the  platform  into 
the  tender  of  the  locomotive.  The  cost 
of  these  platforms  will  depend  on  their 
size. 

ENGINE  HOUSES  are  built  of  wood  or 
brick,  depending  entirely  upon  the  neces- 
sities of  the  road.  A  house  built  in  the 
form  of  a  segment  of  a  circle  is  the  most 
convenient  form  for  a  road  operating  a 
large  number  of  locomotives.  A  turn- 
table is  generally  placed  at  the  entrance 
to  an  engine  house  both  for  convenience 
in  "housing"  the  engine  and  to  turn  them 
around  whenever  required.  A  brick  en- 


266  THE    KAILWAY   BUILDER. 

gine  house  of  this  kind,  designed  for  a 
number  of  engines,  will  cost  about  $1000 
per  engine  stall, — a  wooden  house  is  only 
intended  as  a  temporary  covering,  and  is 
very  seldom  used. 

EOAD  CROSSINGS,  or  points  along  the 
line  of  the  railroad  where  it  crosses  com- 
mon wagon  roads  and  streets,  are,  as  a 
rule,  grade  crossings,  that  is,  the  street  is 
on  the  same  level  as  the  railroad  which 
crosses  it.  On  some  well  regulated  rail- 
roads, running  through  crowded  cities 
and  crossing  streets  at  grade,  gates  made 
of  iron  are  put  up  and  so  arranged  that 
no  wagons  can  cross  the  railroad  until 
the  train  has  passed.  This  arrangement 
is  also  used  in  England  at  every  grade 
crossing,  and  every  precaution  is  taken 
to  avoid  accidents  to  passing  vehicles. 
There  are  many  situations  in  which  a 
bridge  to  pass  a  highway  over  a  railway 
track  would  be  very  expensive,  and  this 
is  a  strong  reason  for  having  level 
crossings;  and  in  some  situations,  near 


DEPOTS   AND   STRUCTUKES.         267 

stations,  there  would  be  inconvenience 
in  the  approaches  to  the  railway. 
That  highways  should  pass  over  or  under 
a  railway  no  one  will  doubt.  Level 
crossings  have  caused  much  personal  in- 
jury, the  loss  of  many  lives,  persons 
maimed  for  life,  and  much  damage  to 
property.  The  locating  engineer  should 
consider  well  every  facility  for  obviating 
the  necessity  of  a  level  crossing,  especially 
where  there  may  be  obstructions  prevent- 
ing a  good  range  of  sight.  The  subject 
is  of  sufficient  importance  to  justify  some 
modifications  in  the  grade  or  alignment, 
if  by  that  means  a  highway  may  be  passed 
by  a  bridge.  To  raise  an  embankment 
to  the  elevation  required  to  pass  over  the 
railroad  sometimes  interferes  with  other 
avenues  or  objects  to  such  a  degree  that 
it  cannot  well  be  done;  but  if  there  be 
nothing  of  this  kind,  and  the  expense  of 
raising  the  bank  for  landing  the  highway 
over  the  railway  be  the  only  objection, 
the  case  should  be  very  unfavorable  to 


268  THE    KAILWAY    BUILDER. 

warrant  a  level  crossing.  The  objection 
to  merely  an  elevation  of  the  highway, 
as  injuring  the  public  accommodation  for 
travel,  is  by  no  means  worthy  of  being 
placed  against  the  benefits  the  travellers 
on  the  public  road  will  derive  from  the 
safety  from  collision  that  will  be  secured 
by  the  bridge.1  The  same  reasoning  holds 
good  as  to  farm  crossings.  Serious  acci- 
dents have  occurred  on  these  when  made 
over  the  level  of  the  rail.  A  good  timber 
farm  bridge,  crossing  a  single  track  road, 
can  be  built  for  about  $500,  and  the 
damages  arising  from  one  collision  would 
pay  the  entire  cost. 

»  Jervis,  "  Railway  Property." 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

CONCLUSION. 

THE  miles  of  Railway  built  in  the 
United  States  probably  exceeds  that  in 
all  the  rest  of  the  world. 

This  development  has  taken  place 
within  the  past  fifty  years,  and  is  re- 
markable for  the  enormous  amount  of 
invested  capital.  The  average  statisti- 
cal mind  finds  it  difficult  to  compre- 
hend such  figures  as  $11,300,000,000, 
and  that  amount  represents  the  money 
put  into  American  Railways  up  to  the 
present  writing.  Beginning  with  only 
23  miles  in  1830,  this  mileage  has  grown 
to  181,000  miles  in  1895.  Every  year  of 
the  intervening  time  has  witnessed  the 
steady  addition  to  the  previous  figures. 

In  1887  there  was  over  12,000  miles 
of  new  railway  built,  the  greatest  num- 
ber of  miles  for  any  single  year.  1882 

269 


270 


THE   RAILWAY    BUILDER. 


was  the  next  best  year  for  new  railways 
in  the  United  States,  some  11,000  miles 
having  been  built  during  that  period. 

The  following  table  shows  the  prog- 
ress made  each  year : 

Table  showing  the  Number  of  Miles  of 
Railways  in  the  United  States. 

(Poor.) 


Year. 

Miles. 

Year. 

Miles. 

Year. 

Miles. 

1830 

23 

1852 

12,908 

1874 

72,385 

1831 

95 

1853 

15,360 

1875 

74,096 

1832 

229 

1854 

16,720 

1876 

76,808 

1833 

380 

1855 

18,374 

1877 

79,088 

1834 

633 

1856 

22,016 

1878 

81,767 

1835 

1,098 

1857 

24,503 

1879 

86,584 

1836 

1,273 

1858 

26,968 

1880 

93,296 

1837 

1,497 

1859 

28,789 

1881 

103,143 

1838 

1,913 

1860 

30,626 

1882  !  114J12 

1839 

2,302 

1861 

31,286 

1883 

121,455 

1840 

2,818 

1862 

32,120 

1884 

125,379 

1841 

3,535 

1863 

33,170 

1885 

128,361 

1842 

4,026 

1864 

33,908 

1886 

136,379 

1843 

4,185 

1865 

35,085 

1887 

149,257 

1844 

4,377 

1866 

36,801 

1888 

156,169 

1845 

4,633 

1867 

39,250 

1889 

161,353 

1846 

4,930 

1868 

42,229 

1890 

166,698 

1847 

5,598 

1869 

46,844 

1891 

170,769 

1848 

5,996 

1870 

52,922 

1892 

175,188 

1849 

7,365 

1871 

60,293 

1893 

177,465 

1850 

9,021 

1872 

66,171 

1894 

179,393 

1851 

10,982 

1873 

70,268 

1895 

181,021 

CONCLUSION.  271 

In  1895,  according  to  Poor's  Manual, 
THE  TOTAL  INVESTMENT  in  Kailways  in 
the  United  States,  including  their  capi- 
tal stock,  funded  and  unfunded  debt, 
was  $11,362,985,080.  Their  NET  EARN- 
INGS during  this  same  year  was  $327,- 
505,716,  or  only  2.9  per  cent,  on  capital 
as  compared  with  4.7  per  cent,  in  the 
year  1880. 

The  COST  PER  MILE  of  road  as  meas- 
ured by  the  amount  of  their  stocks  and 
bonded  indebtedness  equalled  $60,188. 

Their  GROSS  EARNINGS  amounted  to 
$1,105,284,267,  or  9.7  per  cent,  on  in- 
vested capital  as  against  11.36  per  cent, 
in  1880, — facts  that  need  no  comment. 

The  General  Exhibit  of  all  Railroads 
in  the  United  States  for  the  year  1895  : 

Liabilities. 

Capital  Stock $5,182,121,999 

Funded  Debt 6,640,942,567 

Unfunded  Debt 418,505,092 

Current  Debt 429,331,956 

Total  Liabilities $11,670,901,614 


272  THE   RAILWAY   BUILDER. 

Assets. 

Cost,  Kailroad  and  Equipment $9,861,102,973 

Keal  Estate,  Stocks,  Bonds,  etc  ....  1,683,909,608 

Other  Assets 259,804,963 

Current  Accounts 224,706,821 

Total  Assets $12,029,624,365 

Net  Assets $358,622,751 


INDEX. 


A. 

Acres  required  for  right  of  way,  55. 
Ains worth  switch,  186. 
"America,"  locomotive,  223. 

American  coal  car,  237;  locomotive,  223;  passen- 
ger car,  230. 
Angle  of  deflection,  41. 
Apex  distance,  40. 
Areas,  how  calculated,  85. 
Automatic  brakes,  252. 
Axles,  246 ;  hammered,  246 ;  rolled,  248. 
Axman,  17. 

B. 

Ballast,  102 ;  cost  of  stone,  105 ;  on  Pennsylvania 

Eailroad,  104 ;  table  of,  105. 
Bankman,  a,  91. 

Bessemer  plant,  capacity  of,  116;  steel  rails,  113. 
Billings's  frogs,  206. 
Birkenshaw's  rail,  110. 
Black  Rock  Tunnel,  100. 

18  273 


274  INDEX. 

Blenkinsop's  rock  rail,  110. 

Block  system,  214. 

Bolts,  number  to  one  hundred  pounds,  131 ;  stand- 
ard splice,  130 ;  track,  127. 

Bolts  and  nuts,  132;  bolt  heads  and  nuts,  132; 
dimensions  of,  132;  tables  of,  131. 

Borrow  pits,  79. 

Brakes,  250;  automatic,  252;  Loughridge,  252; 
slipper,  251 ;  Smith's  vacuum,  254 ;  Westing- 
house,  252. 

Breast  walls,  68. 

Brick  work,  68. 

Bridge  masonry,  65 ;  second  quality,  67. 

Bridges,  155 ;  iron,  156 ;   wooden,  158. 

Burnettizing  cross  ties,  108. 

C. 

Cars,  American  coal,  237 ;  American  passenger, 
230 ;  average  weight  of,  236 ;  freight  box,  235 ; 
number  in  United  States,  233 ;  Pennsylvania 
Railroad  passenger,  231  ;  sleeping,  234;  special, 
235  ;  springs,  249 ;  the  first  railway,  230. 

Cart  will  hold,  86. 

Chain,  20,  21. 

Chainmen,  17. 

Chairs  for  switches,  168. 

Chief  of  corps,  17. 

Coal  cars,  239  ;  American,  237. 

Coaling  platform,  266. 

Conclusion,  269. 


INDEX.  275 

Contract,  form  of,  56. 
Corps,  constructing,  84 ;  of  engineers,  15. 
Cost  of  car  wheels,  245 ;  cast-iron  frogs,  200 ;  cul- 
vert masonry,  162  ;  passenger  locomotives,  222  ; 

switch  chairs,  169  ;  trestling,  153. 
Cost  per  mile  of  railways,  271. 
Couplings,  wrought-iron,  250. 
Crossings,  at  grade,  206 ;  how  to  lay,  210 ;  of  steel 

rails,  208 ;  road,  266. 
Cross-over,  163 
Cross  section,  of  railroad  cutting,  87 ;   of  tunnel, 

98 ;  work,  85. 
Cross  ties,  cost  of,  109 ;  Burnettizing,  108 ;  number 

to  a  mile,   109 ;   on  American   railroads,    107 ; 

sawed,  108. 

Cubic  yard  of  earth,  91 ;  of  rock,  92. 
Cubical  contents,  85. 
Culvert,   foundations    for,   162 ;    how   built,    161 ; 

masonry,  63. 

Cumberland  and  Pennsylvania  Kailroad  grades,  81. 
Curvature  of  the  earth,  42. 
Curves,  39. 


Depot  and  structures,  255 ;  freight,  256 ;  passen- 
ger, 255. 

Dooley's  stub  switch,  174.    . 

Double  throw  switch,  172. 

Drains,  double  box,  161 ;  on  a  curve,  162 ;  on  a 
skew,  162. 


276  INDEX. 

E. 

Earnings,  gross,  271. 

Earth,  cubic  yard  of,  91  ;  equal  to  a  ton,  95 ;  exca- 
vation in  a  mile,  93. 

Earthwork,  cost  of,  78  ;  per  mile,  cost  of,  93. 

Embankment,  specifications,  59. 

Engine  houses,  265. 

Engineers,  chain,  20;  corps,  15;  duty,  46;  level, 
21;  transit,  18. 

Equipment,  217. 

Excavating,  average  cost  of,  91. 

Excavation,  specifications,  58. 

F. 

Field  operations,  16. 

Fish  bars,  plain,  127. 

Fish  plates,  125-127  ;  cost  for  one  mile,  129  ;  num- 
ber to  a  mile,  129. 

Fishing,  123. 

Fixed  signals,  211. 

Flag  stations,  258. 

Flat  Kock  Tunnel,  100. 

Foundations  for  bridges,  158;  for  wharves,  159. 

Frames,  wrought-iron,  250. 

Freight  box  cars,  235. 

Freight  depot,  256. 

Frog,  and  switches,  163;  Billings,  206;  cast-iron, 
199;  distance,  164,  166,  199;  Mansfield,  206; 
movable,  202 ;  number  of  a,  164  ;  Pierce,  206 ; 


INDEX.  277. 

rail,   203,  205;   spring,  202;    steel  plated,   199; 
stiff,  197. 
Fuel  for  locomotives,  263 ;  properties  of,  264. 

G. 

Grade,  crossing,  206 ;  in  feet  per  mile,  81 ;  lines, 
78 ;  maximum,  79 ;  on  Philadelphia  and  Read- 
ing Eailroad,  79  ;  performance  of  locomotive,  82 ; 
table  of,  80. 

Grading,  78. 

Gosh  &  Stephenson  flanged  rail,  110. 

Gross  earnings,  271. 

H. 

Hawk's  cast-iron  rail,  110. 
Headings  for  tunnels,  97. 
Heel  of  a  switch,  164. 
Hook-headed  spikes,  134. 
Horses,  average  speed  of,  88. 

I. 

Interlocking  signals,  213. 
Investment  in  railroads,  271. 
Iron  bridges,  weight  of,  156. 
Iron  rails,  how  made,  120. 
Iron,  value  of,  151. 

J. 

Jessop's  rail,  110. 

Joint,  per  mile,  123;  standard,  125;  supported, 
125 ;  suspended,  125. 


278  INDEX. 

K. 

Kehl  for  marking  stakes,  84. 

L. 

Laying  the  track,  150. 

Lead,  number  of  feet  in,  88. 

Letting  the  contract,  55. 

Level,  21 ;  book,  38 ;  how  to  run,  37 ;  pocket,  24 ; 

rod,  16;  rodman,  17;  slope,  26. 
Leveler,  17. 
Lining  for  tunnel,  98. 
Locating  the  line,  46. 
Location,  39. 
Locomotive,    "America,"    223;    "Bicycle,"  228; 

consolidated,   227  ;    dimensions,  223  ;    fuel,  263  ; 

"Mogul,"    224;    Pennsylvania   Kailroad,    221; 

price   per  pound,  230;    size  of  American,  229; 

the  "Kocket,"  219;  total  number,  222;  vs.  fixed 

engine,  218. 

Lorenz,  safety  switch,  179;   table  for,  184;  three- 
throw  switch,  183. 
Loughborough's  rail,  109. 
Loughridge  brakes,  252. 

M. 

Man  can  shovel,  86. 

Mansfield  frog,  206. 

Masonry,  63 ;  bridge,  65 ;  culvert,  63. 

Middle  ordinates,  43. 

Movable  frog,  198;  guard  switch,  195. 


INDEX.  279 

N. 

Narrow  gauge  spikes,  136. 

Nicolls,   safety  switch,   196;   single  joint  switch, 

175. 
Nuts  and  bolts,  129  ;  weight  of,  181. 


O. 


Obstacles  to  survey,  235. 

Open  joint,  122. 

Outfit  for  field  party,  23. 

P. 

Passenger  locomotive,  221 ;  station,  255. 

Pennsylvania  Kailroad  ballast,  104  ;  fish  plate,  126  ; 
passenger  car,  231. 

Permanent  way,  102. 

Philadelphia  and  Reading  Kailroad  grade,  79 ;  tun- 
nels, 100. 

Pick,  work  of  a,  86. 

Pierce  frog,  206. 

Plough,  work  of  a,  86. 

Pocket  level,  24. 

Points,  running  against  the,  182. 

Port  Clinton  tunnel,  100. 

Preliminary  line,  23 ;  survey,  45 ;  survey,  cost  of, 
49. 

Prismoidal  formula,  85,  94. 

Profile  of  railway,  83. 

Proposals,  contract,  56  ;  railroad,  76. 


280  INDEX. 

R. 

Radius  of  a  curve,  42. 

Rail,  Bessemer  steel,  112;  combination,  112; 
double-headed,  111;  history  of  the,  109;  mitre 
joint,  112  ;  Pennsylvania  Railroad  standard,  133  ; 
piles,  120;  steel  top,  112. 

Railroad  development,  269 ;  early  history  of,  217  ; 
in  United  States,  270 ;  spikes,  table  of,  136. 

Rails,  average  price,  121;  Berkinshaw's,  110; 
Blenkinsop's  rock,  110;  cast-iron,  109;  double- 
headed,  107;  fish-bellied,  110;  flat  iron,  109; 
Gosh  &  Stephenson's,  110;  Hawk's,  110;  iron, 
120;  Jessup's,  110;  Loughborough's,  109;  price 
during  fifty  years,  121 ;  size  of,  118  ;  strap,  111 ; 
table  of,  119  ;  wing  or  guard,  165  ;  wooden,  109  ; 
Woodhouse's,  110 ;  wrought  bar,  110 ;  Wyatt's, 
110. 

Railway  curves,  table  of,  42. 

Right  of  way,  agreement,  50 ;  negotiations  for,  49  ; 
table  of,  55. 

Road  crossings,  266. 

Rock,  cost  of  loose,  92;  cost  of  solid,  92;  cubic 
yard  of,  92  ;  excavation  in  a  mile,  93  ;  loosening 
solid,  92. 

"Rocket,"  the,  219. 

Rubble  work,  67. 

S. 

Safety  switch,  177. 

Saxby  and  Farmer's  signals,  214. 


INDEX.  281 

Screw-threads,  standard  for,  132. 

Shafts  for  tunnels,  96. 

Signals,  210;  block  system,  214 ;  fixed,  211 ;  inter- 
locking, 213 ;  towers,  212. 

Singleton  switch,  191. 

Sleeping  cars,  234. 

Slipper  brakes,  251. 

Slope  level,  26. 

Smith's  vacuum  brake,  254. 

Snake  ends,  111. 

Special  cars,  235. 

Specifications,  57;  embankment,  59;  for  excava- 
tions, 58 ;  track  laying,  139. 

Spikes,  for  narrow  gauge,  136 ;  hook-headed,  134. 

Splice  bolt,  standard,  130. 

Split  rail  switch,  178. 

Springs,  car,  249. 

Staking  out,  rule  for,  84. 

Standard  joint,  125  ;  rail  section,  133 ;  spike,  134, 
138. 

Stations,  flag,  258 ;  water,  260 ;  way,  257. 

Statistics  of  railways,  269. 

Steam  shovels,  93. 

Steel-plated  frogs,  203. 

Steel  rails,  crossing,  207 ;  frog,  203 ;  manufacture 
of,  114;  price  of,  122;  the  first,  117. 

Steel-tired  wheels,  246. 

Stiff  frog,  197. 

Stone  bearings    106. 

Stringers  under  rails,  106. 


282  INDEX. 

Supported  joint,  125. 

Surface,  road,  81. 

Survey,  cost  of,  49. 

Suspended  joint,  125. 

Switch,  163;  Ainsworth,  186;  Dooley's  stub,  174; 
left-handed,  163;  Lorenz  safety,  175;  Lorenz 
three-throw,  184 ;  movable  guard,  195 ;  Nicolls' 
single-joint,  175;  right-handed,  163;  single- 
tongue,  191 ;  split  rail,  178 ;  stub,  166,  167 ; 
Thiemeyer,  191  ;  Tyler,  195 ;  Wharton,  187 ; 
White,  195 ;  Wilson,  194. 

Switch  stand  with  target,  171. 

T. 

Target  for  switch,  170. 

Thiemeyer  switch,  191,  193. 

Three-throw  switch,  172. 

Throat  of  a  frog,  166. 

Throw  of  a  switch,  164. 

Tie  rods,  169. 

Toe  of  a  switch,  164. 

Topography,  34. 

Tower  signals,  212. 

Track  bolts,  127. 

Track  laying,  cost  of,  151 ;  contract  for,  137  ;  gang, 

150. 
Transit,  the,  17  ;  book,  34  ;  how  to  run,  25  ;  man, 

17  ;  rodman,  17. 
Trestles,  152  ;  cost  of,  153. 
Triangulations  on  survey,  35. 


INDEX.  283 

Tunnel,  excavation,  95;  cost  of,  99;  daily  prog- 
ress, 99  ;  heading,  96  ;  lining,  98  ;  Philadelphia 
and  Heading,  100. 

Turnout,  163. 

Turn-table,  259. 

Tyler  switch,  195. 

U. 

United  States  railway,  number  of  miles,  270. 

V. 

Vernier  plate,  28 ;  double,  32  ;  how  to  read,  29. 
Versed  sines,  43. 
Vertical  walls,  68. 

W. 

Walls,  vertical,  and  breast,  68. 

Waste,  a,  79. 

Water  columns,  261 ;  stations,  260. 

Way  stations,  257. 

Weights  of  substances,  238. 

Westinghouse  brakes,  252. 

Wharf  at  Willow  Street,  169. 

Wharton  safety  switch,  187. 

Wheels,  239 ;    double-plate,  241 ;  manufacture  of, 

242 ;  steel-tired,  246. 
White's  safety  switch,  195. 
Wilson  switch,  194. 
Wooden  bridges,  158. 
Woodhouse's  hollow  rail,  110. 
Wrought-iron  frames,  250. 
Wyatt,  east-edge  rai,,  110. 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 


This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 

on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 
Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 


AUG  06  1989 


hUlLL. 


itft 


YA  01407 


U.C.  BERKELEY  LIBRARIES 


